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Executive Report on Strategies in Central African Republic
ICON Group International, June 2007, Pages: 381
How to Strategically Evaluate Central African Republic
Perhaps the most efficient way of evaluating Central African Republic is to consider key dimensions which themselves are composites of multiple factors. Composite portfolio approaches have long been used by strategic planners. The biggest challenge in this approach is to choose the appropriate factors that are the most relevant to international planning. The two measures of greatest relevance are “latent demand” and “market accessibility”. The figure below summarizes the key dimensions and recommendations of such an approach. Using these two composites, one can prioritize all countries of the world. Countries of high latent demand and high relative accessibility (e.g. easier entry for one firm compared to other firms) are given highest priority. The figure below shows two different scenarios. Accessibility is defined as a firm’s ease of entering or supplying from or to a market (the “supply side”), and latent demand is an indicator of the potential in serving from or to the market (the “demand side”).
Framework for Prioritizing Countries
Demand/Market Potential Driven Firm
Relative Accessibility
Accessibility/Supply Averse Firm
Relative Accessibility
In the top figure, the firm is driven by market potential, whereas the bottom figure represents a firm that is driven by costs or by an aversion to difficult markets. This report treats the reader as coming from a “generic firm” approaching the global market - neither a market-driven nor a cost-driven company. Planners must therefore augment this report with their own company-specific factors that might change the priorities (e.g. a Canadian firm may have higher accessibility in Canada than a German firm).
Latent Demand and Accessibility in Central African Republic
This report provides an extremely detailed overview of factors driving latent demand and accessibility in Central African Republic. Latent demand is largely driven by economic fundamentals. But, latent demand only represents half of the picture. A country may at first sight appear to be attractive due to a high latent demand, but it is often less attractive when one considers at the macro level how easy it might be to serve that entire potential and/or general business risks.
Chapter 2 deals with macro-accessibility. While accessibility will always vary from one company to another for a given country, the following domains are typically considered when evaluating macro-accessibility in Central African Republic:
Openness to Trade in Central African Republic
Openness to Direct Investment in Central African Republic
Local Marketing and Entry Strategy Alternatives
Local Human Resources
Local Risks
Across these domains, a number of not-so-obvious factors can affect accessibility and risk. These are also covered in Chapter 2, which is presented from the perspective of an American firm, though it is equally applicable to most firms entering Central African Republic. This chapter has been authored by local offices of the U.S. Government. I have included a number of edits to clarify the provided information as it relates to the general strategic framework.
In Chapter 3, I summarize the economic potential for Central African Republic over the next five years for hundreds of industries, categories, and products. The goal of this chapter is to report my findings on the real economic potential, or latent demand, represented by Central African Republic when defined as an area of dominant influence. The data presented are the result of various spatial econometric and time-series forecasting models which, for each category presented, are applied to forecast and allocate latent demand across all countries of the world and major distribution centers or centers of dominant influence within each country. This is accomplished knowing that economic fundamentals (e.g. income) generally vary from one country to another within a given country over time. In this chapter, I report the allocation for each category for Central African Republic as an area of dominant influence in Africa and, potentially, the world.
As a whole, this report presents a strategic assessment of Central African Republic by considering an extremely broad set of factors affecting both latent demand and accessibility, as outlined in the following chapters.
MACRO-ACCESSIBILITY IN CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
Economic Fundamentals and Dynamics
The Central African Republic (C.A.R.) is a landlocked country of approximately 3.5 million people, ranked among the less advanced developing countries. The economy is essentially based on agriculture and forestry. Diamonds are the country’s principal export, while some gold is also mined. Nearly self sufficient in food production, the C.A.R. has the potential to become a net exporter of agricultural products. The C.A.R.’s economy is disadvantaged by the country’s landlocked position, which isolates it from foreign suppliers and market and contributes to high import prices. The C.A.R. is believed to have petroleum deposits along its border with Chad, which could be explored if the proposed Chad/Cameroon pipeline is constructed. It also has hydroelectric potential that could be developed for export to neighboring countries that suffer from power shortages.
Infrastructure Development
The Central African Republic’s geographic position serves as a major constraint to foreign imports. Imports must be either be flown in directly from Europe or shipped to the port of Doula in Cameroon, which is located at 1,200 km from Bangui and then transported overland by truck to the C.A.R. Ninety percent of the country’s exports and imports (with the exception of petroleum products) are transported through this port.
The country’s physical infrastructure is consistent with the general level of national development. There are roughly 25,000 km of roads in the C.A.R., of which only 450 are paved. Some of these roads are impassable during the rainy season, which lasts from May until October. Transport for those without an automobile is limited, as they must rely on the poor service provided by private overcrowded minibuses. There are a few small landing strips at various points around the country, but there are no regularly scheduled domestic flights at the present time. Automobiles and small planes can be rented, but are very expensive.
Internet capacity is in its early stages of development in the Central African Republic. This is partially due to the inability of Socatel, the local telecommunication company, to provide adequate technical support to customers. Bangui has a relatively modern and reliable telephone system, and a satellite relay system which permits telephone calls to three provincial towns (Bouar, Bambari and Kembe). International telephone service is generally reliable but expensive. Three wireless companies are currently operating in Bangui — Telecel, Caratel, and Telecom Plus - but they only cover Bangui.
Regional Economic Integration
The Central African Republic is a national member of the Communaute Economique et Monetaire pour les Etats Centrafricains (CEMAC), the Central African States Economic and Monetary Community. Other CEMAC member countries include Cameroon, Chad, Congo-Brazzaville, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon. The treaty creating this organization was signed on February 5, 1998, replacing the Central African States Customs Union (UDEAC). CEMAC’s main objective is to harmonize the economic and monetary policies among the five countries in order to regional economic and competitiveness. The ultimate goal of CEMAC is to achieve regional economic and monetary integration among the member countries.
Political Risks
Economic Relationship with the United States
Diplomatic relations between the United States and the Central African Republic are cordial. The U.S. government assistance to the C.A.R. is limited to three programs: the Ambassador’s Special Self-Help Program (SSH), the Democracy and Human Rights Fund (DHRF), and the International Military Education Training (IMET) Program.
The Political System
The C.A.R. is a constitutional democracy with a multiparty legislature. The C.A.R. has a very Centralized government, with major decision-making done at the Central level. Provincial governments have neither the political authority nor the human and financial resources to assert themselves in the economic arena. The Central African Government (C.A.R.G.) made substantial efforts to enforce the rule of law and is trying to reduce the misappropriation of public fund and combat corruption.
The political system is built around the executive, legislative and judicial branches. The executive branch includes the president and the government headed by a prime minister. The president appoints the prime minister and the cabinet members. The legislative branch, a unicameral national assembly of 109 members, represents the country’s regions. The legal system is comprised of regular courts (civil, commercial, administrative, criminal and financial) and a military court. At the top of the judiciary is the constitutional court.
There are more than 30 political parties in the Central African Republic, of which only eight are represented at the national assembly. There is no particular orientation among the parties, as some characterize themselves as socialist or liberal.
Marketing Strategies
Creating a Sales Office
There are no restrictions on the marketing of U.S. products and services. The law permits the use of agents and distributors for all franchises and joint ventures, as well as direct marketing. Numerous U.S. products are sold through middlemen or distributors, but no U.S. company operates as a direct marketer of its own products. One U.S. service company, DHL, an international courier service, has a franchise in Bangui.
The process of setting up a business in the C.A.R. can be time consuming. Foreign businesses wanting to operate must provide voluminous documentation, which must be obtained within the country. To obtain a license, approval is required from the Ministries of Commerce, Finance, and Justice; the latter serving to register into the commerce register. However, corruption and the lack of transparency at certain levels serve as constraints for potential foreign investors. Money transfer outside of the country is guaranteed, although the approval is required from the Ministry of Finance for amounts above $1,000.00. In most cases, it is useful to have a local intermediary to negotiate the complex regulations by which businesses are required to abide, but only after a background check of said intermediary’s credentials.
Selling Strategies
Any literature related to products and services should be translated into French, which is the official language of the C.A.R. and is also the language which prevails in most legal and commercial settings. It is advisable for radio and other verbal advertising purposes for U.S. companies to have their advertising materials translated into Sango, the national language, to attain a more extensive target audience.
Major Newspapers
Le Citoyen
Editor: Maka Gbassokoto
P.O. Box 974 Bangui
Fax: 236-61-89-16
Tel: 236-50-27-19
Beafrika
Editor: Pierre Debato
P.O. Box 2137 Bangui
Tel: 236-61-49-03
L’Hirondelle
Editor: Jude Zosse
P.O. Box 1270 Bangui
Tel: 236-61-69-22
Le Democrate
Editor: Ferdinand Samba
P.O. Box 427 Bangui
Tel: 236-50-51-09
Les Collines du Bas-Oubangui
Editor: Faustin Bambou
P.O. Box 2119 Bangui
Government Procurement
Government procurements are handled by an entity called “commission des marches” (the market committee), which evaluates and selects offers from private and public enterprises when competing for projects either funded by or on behalf of the C.A.R.G. Selection of the best offer is based on criteria set by the committee.
Import and Export Regulation Risks
The Central African Republic is a signatory to both GATT and the World Trade Organization (WTO). In addition to CEMAC, the C.A.R. is also member of Organisation Africaine de la Propriete Intellectuelle (OAPI), the African Organization for Intellectual Property. This body includes fifteen West and Central African States, all members of the WTO. In February 1999, OAPI representatives met in Banguiand signed the Bangui Agreement, which brings together all aspects of both the intellectual and the industrial property rights in the fifteen member countries.
Under CEMAC, goods entering C.A.R. through one of the other five member states are only required to have transit duties paid on them in the country of final destination, not in the country being transited. Customs duties are computed on the value of the commercial invoice plus fifty percent of transportation fees of imported goods from their point of origin. Customs charges vary, by percentage, according to the type of goods being imported.
The official government customs manual lists no goods as being expressly prohibited, although some, including firearms, ammunitions and (unspecified) “toxic materials” are strictly regulated and controlled.
In order to bring goods into the country, exporters must provide the original airway bill and commercial invoice (used to set customs duties). The first time importers bring goods into the country, they must register with the Ministry of Commerce, which assigns them a registration number or “numica”. Once the company has a numica, it can deal directly with customs on each subsequent occasion when importing goods.
Investment Climate
Openness to Foreign Investment
The government has undertaken substantial structural reforms to stimulate the private sector development by attracting domestic and international private investment in the Central African Republic. It is in the process of adopting a more attractive investment code. This new code, which will be renamed the National Investment Charter, is designed to open up the country to foreign investors while complying with the treaty creating the Central African states economic and monetary community. The labor code is being reviewed to provide more flexibility in terms of salary and job management. The mineral code is also being reviewed and will conform to international standards in this sector. In 1998, the National Assembly ratified the treaty on business regulation in Africa.
There are no discriminatory industrial and economic practices negative impacting foreign-owned investments in the C.A.R.
There is no screening of foreign investments in the C.A.R.
There are no closed/screened sectors in the C.A.R. All the economic sectors are open to foreign investments.
There is no single sector/matter in which foreign investors are denied national treatment in the C.A.R.
There is no discrimination against foreign investors at any time in the investment process.
Conversion and Transfer Policies
There is no restriction on converting or transferring funds associated with an investment. The investment code provides that investment capital; earnings and loan payments are freely transferable. However, the process of funds transfer needs to be authorized by the Minister of Finance.
Foreign exchange is obtained only at the local banks. In mid-1999, bank customers experienced a lack of foreign currencies for more than one month. UBAC, one of the commercial banks, explained that the shortage was due to the temporary absence of direct flights to transport foreign exchange from Paris.
Although Central African banking officials claim that the average time period for remitting investment returns is 30 days, the actual time may be considerably longer.
Remitting investment returns through a legal parallel market is not practiced in the Central African Republic.
Expropriation and Compensation
There is no reported case of expropriation in the C.A.R. during the last twenty years. There is no particular sector that is more at risk for expropriation or similar action in the C.A.R. There is no law that forces local ownership in any sector in the C.A.R. The Embassy has been unable to identify any cases of “creeping expropriation” or government action tantamount to expropriation.
Dispute Settlement
There are effective means to enforce property and contractual rights. The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, but there are reliable reports of executive interference. The judiciary has recently shown signs of increasing independence from the executive branch.
The C.A.R. has judicial treaties in effect with most of the francophone countries. The C.A.R.G. also ratified the treaty related to the African organization for harmonizing business law (organization pour l’harmonisation en afrique des droits des affaires.)
The country has a written commercial law which is similar to French law and which is consistently applied.
The judgments are usually made in local currency.
The C.A.R. accepts binding international arbitration of investment disputes between foreign investors and the state.
The C.A.R. is a member of the international center for the settlement of investment disputes.
Performance Requirements and Incentives
Information provided by the Ministry of Commerce does not state clearly that the C.A.R. is in compliance with WTO statutes.
Performance requirements are imposed to qualify for tax exemption and investment incentives. There is no requirement that investors purchase from local sources or export a certain amount of output in general. However, it should be noted that since 1996 the logging companies operating in the C.A.R. convert more than 75 percent of the wood cut locally and export only 25 percent in the form of raw timber.
In the telecommunication sector, a decree dated December 31, 1997, requires that a Central African control a portion of the share capital of any telecommunication company.
There are no government-imposed conditions on permission to invest in terms of specific geographic area, specific percentage of local content (goods or services). In terms of employment, the Central African government encourages the employment of Central Africans where there are qualified personnel. There is no specific quota imposed. However, before a foreigner is employed at any level in a private company, permission from the Ministry of Labor is required.
There is no indication that the Central African government intends to increase or decrease requirements. The C.A.R.G. does not require the disclosure of proprietary information as part of regulatory approval process.
U.S. and other foreign firms can participate in government financed/or subsidized research and development program on national treatment basis.
There are no discriminatory or excessively onerous visa, residence, or work permit requirements, or similar requirements inhibiting foreign investors in the C.A.R.
There are no discriminatory or preferential export or import policies affecting foreign investors in the C.A.R.
Right to Private Ownership and Establishment
Foreign and domestic private entities have the right to establish and own business enterprises and engage in all forms of remunerative activity.
Private entities have the right to freely establish, acquire and dispose of interests in business enterprises.
There is no discrimination concerning access to markets on a competitive and equal basis. There is an entity called “commission des marches” - markets committee, which is responsible for evaluating and selecting the private, as well as public, offer of any enterprise which competes for a market funded by, or on behalf of, the government. No domestic preference is applied to the selection of the best offer.
Protection of Property Rights
Secured interests in property are recognized and enforced. The concept of a mortgage is common in the C.A.R. However, annual prime rates (APR) on mortgages average 22 percent. The recording of such security is made in accordance with the OCAM (African) accounting system, very similar to the French recording system.
There is a legal system that protects and facilitates acquisition and disposition of all property rights, such as land, buildings and mortgages.
Adherence to Key International Agreements on Intellectual Property Rights
The C.A.R. became a member of the African intellectual property organization on March 27, 1997.
Adequate Protection for Intellectual Property, Patents, and Copyrights
In 1983, the government established an office dealing with industrial and intellectual property rights in the Ministry of Commerce. In principle, there are legal provisions which protect the author’s rights, but the implementation remains somewhat poor.
WTO TRIPS Agreement
A notable step has been taken with the Bangui agreement on intellectual property signed by fifteen African countries in February 1999. The Bangui agreement embodies and harmonizes all aspects of both intellectual and industrial property rights in the fifteen states. For the Central African Republic, this agreement has been reviewed by the Council of Ministers and will be ratified by the National Assembly shortly. As of 1990, the country has established the national office for the protection of copyrights, Bureau Centrafricain des Droits d’Auteurs (BUCADA). Patents, trademarks, copyrights and related rights are monitored and protected by this entity.
Transparency of the Regulatory System
In 1992, the Central African government adopted a law to liberalize the commercial sector by canceling price controls and encouraging sound competition in order to stimulate the private sector development in the country.
Tax, labor, health and security laws do not distort or impede investment in the Central African Republic.
Capital Market Risks
There is no efficient capital market or portfolio investment in the Central African Republic. Credit is allocated on market terms and foreign investors can obtain credit on the local market although this market remains modest with only five commercial banks operating in the country.
The private sector has access to the limited range of credit instruments available in the country. There is no effective regulation system established to encourage and facilitate portfolio investments in the Central African Republic.
The largest commercial bank in the Central African Republic is Banque Internationale pour le Centrafrique (BICA), Place de la Republique, P.O. Box 910 Bangui; tel # (236) 61-00-42; fax # (236) 61-61-36. The local bank with the most international correspondents is UBAC, which benefits from the Credit Lyonais network.
Political Violence
The Central African Republic completed a successful transition to democratic government in 1993 when President Patasse as well as 85 deputies were elected after a fair political election. However, arrears in salary payment to military and civil servants, combined with pressure for political and economic reforms resulted in three mutinies in 1996 and 1997. The mutinies were stopped by MISAB, an African peacekeeping force, financially supported by France. After the restoration of peace, MINURCA, a UN peacekeeping force, replaced the MISAB in April 1998. Recently, the Central African government, with the assistance of MINURCA, successfully conducted legislative elections in December 1998 and the presidential elections in September 1999 in which President Patasse was re-elected.
Currently, the overall security situation in the Central African Republic remains calm. MINURCA departed from the Central African Republic in February 2000.
Potential instability in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is a major concern. Its proximity and the economic impact of a shared waterway, the Oubangui River, make peace in the DRC a prime concern for the C.A.R. The Lusaka Accords were designed to promote peaceful resolution to the conflict but some parties to the conflict are violating the accords.
Corruption
The Central African government has no specific program to combat corruption. Corruption is seen as a mere offence and sometimes punished as such. The judicial system is charged with combating corruption but there are no specific laws in force. Despite many reports of corruption and some incidences of civil servants being fired for this offence, there is a perception that the guilty parties are never really held accountable.
The C.A.R. is not a signatory of the OECD convention on combating bribery.
To the best of our knowledge, no U.S. firm has identified corruption as an obstacle to foreign direct investment in the Central African Republic. Although corruption is not a major obstacle to foreign direct investment in the Central African Republic, corruption to some degree is more pervasive in government procurement, dispute settlement, and taxation.
A bribe to a foreign official cannot be deducted from taxes.
Bilateral Investment Agreements
The Central African Republic has bilateral investment agreements with the following countries: Cameroon, Congo-Brazzaville, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Chad.
The Central African Republic has no bilateral agreement investment treaty with the U.S.
The Central African Republic is an OPIC eligible country.
OPIC and Other Investment Insurance
The Central African Republic is an OPIC eligible country. The C.A.R. has a democratically elected government, a relatively good human rights record and is engaged in an IMF/World Bank economic restructuring program that includes the privatization of state-owned companies.
The Central African Republic is a member of the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA).
Labor
Labor is available in most of the economic sectors, depending on what the local training institution can provide. However, there are still some difficulties in finding skilled personnel in some technical fields. Labor-management relations are regulated by the labor code. Depending on the economic sector, labor-management relations are regulated through specific agreements.
The C.A.R. adheres to the ILO Convention protecting workers’ rights.
Free Trade Zones
There is no foreign trade zone in the Central African Republic.
Trade and Project Financing
The Banking System
There are three commercial banks in the Central African Republic. Two of them - Banque Internationale pour le Centrafrique (BICA) and Union Bancaire en Afrique Centrale (UBAC) - are 100-percent privately owned. The third bank - Banque Populaire Marocco-Centrafricaine (BPMC) - is partially owned by the C.A.R.G. BICA has arrangements with meridien international in New York, while UBAC has correspondent arrangements with Meridien International and Credit Lyonais, also in New York. BPMC has direct correspondence with numerous banks in Europe and the United States.
Foreign Exchange Control Risks
There is no formal exchange control policy in the C.A.R. Prior the January 1994 CFA devaluation, strict foreign exchange controls were temporarily put in place in an effort to stem speculative capital flight. These controls have since been relaxed, and there are no restrictions on the amounts of money that can be transferred into or out of the country by foreign owned firms.
General Financing Availability
There is very limited financing availability in the C.A.R.
Travel Risks
Business travelers to the C.A.R. who are residents of the country must have a residency permit or “carte de sejour”. Non-resident business travelers need a valid Central African visa, which is obtained from the C.A.R. Embassy in Washington, located at 1618 22nd street, NW, Washington, DC 20008; ph: (202) 438 7800. Travelers should contact the C.A.R. Embassy directly for information on most recent visa prices and validity. It is always advisable, however, to check with the Bureau of Consular Affairs at the Department of State to get the latest consular information sheet and travel advisory for any given country before traveling overseas.
There are ten major holidays for which Central African business is required to close. Foreign businesses operating in the C.A.R. should also be closed on the following days: New Year’s Day (1 January), anniversary of the death of President Barthelemy Boganda (29 March), Easter Monday (variable), Labor Day (1 May), Ascension Day (variable), Monday after Pentecost (variable), Independence Day (13 August), All Saints Day (1 November), Proclamation of the Republic (1 December) and Christmas (25 December).
There is no formal public transportation system, though private taxis (in the city) and buses (outside of the city) are readily available. Quality varies greatly, but is nowhere near what one would be used in North America or Europe. Domestic telephone/fax communication is relatively good, as circuits are seldom down or overloaded. Only larger towns outside of Bangui have telephones. Some towns are restricted to public phones at the local telephone office. There are three wireless telephone companies currently operating in the Central African Republic, but only covering the capital. International calls are expensive; calls to Canada are slightly. Exact prices vary by province.
There are four hotels in Bangui of which only two approach U.S. standards. It is difficult to find housing in Bangui to rent or lease, and that which is available is expensive. Rent is paid on quarterly basis and deposits are usually required from new tenants.
The Central African Republic is a tropical, malaria endemic country, and appropriate precautions should be taken prior to travel. Long-term travelers should bring sufficient anti-malaria medication/prophylaxis to last the duration of their stay. A yellow fever vaccination is required for entry into the country, and travelers arriving without indication of yellow fever vaccination in their international health cards will be turned away by immigrant authorities. There are several private health clinics in Bangui, as the public health system in the country is poor.
Meat should be cooked well before being eaten. Fruits and vegetables should be washed; bleaching helps. The use of iodine tablets or charcoal filters is recommended if travelers plan to drink tap water. Bottled water is widely available and is highly recommended.
Entry of a personal laptop, software, exhibit materials and related items: There is no fee to pay if such equipment is brought in for professional use and is to be taken back.
Key Contacts
C.A.R. Government Contacts
Ministere du Commerce de l’Industrie et de la Promotion du Secteur Prive
Mr. Marcel Moyowana, Directeur Generale
B.P. 736 Bangui, Republique Centrafricaine
Tel: 236-61-32-22
Fax: 236-61-76-53
Chambre du Commerce de l’Industrie et de l’Artisanat
Mme. Gertrude Zouta Yamandja, Secretaire Generale
B.P. 52 Bangui, Republique Centrafricaine
Banks
Banque Internationale pour la Centrafrique (BICA)
Mr. Jean-Paul le Calme, Directeur Generale
B.P.910 Bangui
Tel: 236-61-0042
Fax: 236-61-61-36
E-mail: BICA@intnet.cf
Banque Populaire Maroco-Centrafricaine (PBMC)
Mr. Ahmed Iraqui Huseini, Directeur Generale
B.P.844 Bangui, Republique Centrafricaine
Tel: 236-61-63-90
Fax: 236-61-62-30
Union Bancaire en Afrique Centrale (UBAC)
Mr. Etienne Djimarem, Directeur Generale
B.p.59 Bangui, Republique Centrafricaine.
Tel: 236-61-29-90
Fax: 236-61-34-54
U.S. Government Contacts
American Embassy Bangui
Darryn A. Martin, Economic Officer/Vice Consul
2060 Bangui Place
U.S. Department of State, Washington DC 2052-2060
Tel: 236-61-02-00
Fax: 236-61-44-94
U.S. Department of State
Ms. Debbie Lopes da Rosa, C.A.R. Desk Officer
Office of Central African Affairs, AF/C
Washington dc 20520
Tel: (202) 647-2080
ECONOMIC AND PRODUCT MARKETS IN CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
Introduction & Methodology
Overview & Methodology
In performing various economic analyses for clients, I have occasionally been asked to investigate the market potential for various products and services in Central African Republic. The purpose of the studies is to understand the density of demand within Central African Republic and the extent to which Central African Republic might be used as a point of distribution within Africa. From an economic perspective, however, Central African Republic does not represent a population within rigid geographical boundaries, rather, it represents an area of dominant influence over markets in adjacent areas. This influence varies from one industry to another, but also from one period of time to another.
In what follows, I summarize the economic potential for Central African Republic over the next five years for hundreds of industries, categories, and products. The goal of this chapter is to
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