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Practical Guide to Polyethylene
Rapra Technology Ltd, Jan 2005, Pages: 184
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Polymerisation Processes
1.2 Strengths
1.3 Material Density/Percentage Crystallinity
1.4 Weaknesses
1.5 Applications
1.6 Material Price
1.7 Market Share and Consumption Trends
1.8 Major Suppliers
2 BASIC TYPES
2.1 Homopolymers and Olefin Copolymers
2.1.1 Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
2.1.2 High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) Resins
2.1.3 High-Density Polyethylene
2.1.4 Medium-Density Polyethylene (MDPE)
2.1.5 Linear Polyethylenes
2.1.6 Very Low-Density Polyethylene (VLDPE) Resins
2.1.7 Ultralow-Density Polyethylene (ULDPE) Resins
2.1.8 Metallocene Polyethylene (mPE)
2.1.9 Bimodal Grades
2.1.10 UV-Stabilised Grades
2.1.11 Crosslinked Polyethylene (XPE)
2.1.12 Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE)
2.1.13 Ultrahigh-Modulus Polyethylene
2.1.14 Polyethylene Foam Resins
2.2 Other Grades
2.3 Filled Grades of Polyethylene
2.4 Copolymers
2.4.1 Copolymers with alpha-Olefins or LLDPE
2.4.2 Ethylene–Propylene Copolymers (Polyallomer)
2.4.3 Copolymers with Cyclo-olefins
2.4.4 Copolymers with Vinylic Monomers
2.4.5 Ethylene Ionomers
2.4.6 Block and Graft Copolymers [6]
2.4.7 Primacor Copolymers
2.4.8 Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE)
2.5 Blends
2.6 Composites
3 PROPERTIES
3.1 Density
3.2 Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight Distribution
3.3 Crystallinity
3.3.1 Melting
3.3.2 Orientation
3.4 Thermal Properties
3.4.1 Specific Volume
3.4.2 Specific Heat
3.4.3 Glass Transition Temperature and Melting/Crystallisation Temperature
3.4.4 Maximum Continuous Use Temperature
3.4.5 Heat Deflection Temperatures and Softening Points
3.4.6 Brittleness and Brittle Temperature
3.4.7 Thermal Conductivity
3.4.8 Thermal Expansion
3.5 Mechanical Properties
3.5.1 Short-term Mechanical Properties: Static Mechanical Properties
3.5.2 Dynamic Fatigue
3.5.3 Mechanical Properties of Filled Grades
3.5.4 Biaxial Orientation
3.6 Electrical Properties
3.7 Optical Properties
3.7.1 Transparency
3.7.2 Gloss
3.7.3 Haze: Cloudy or Milky Appearance
3.8 Surface Properties
3.8.1 Adhesion, Frictional Behaviour, and Blocking
3.8.2 Modification of Surface Properties
3.9 Hardness and Scratch Resistance
3.10 Abrasion Resistance
3.11 Friction
3.12 Acoustic Properties
3.13 Degradation Behaviour
3.13.1 Photo-oxidation
3.13.2 Thermal Degradation
3.13.3 Degradation by High-energy Radiation
3.13.4 Biodegradation
3.14 Biological Behaviour
3.14.1 Assessment Under Food and Water Legislation
3.14.2 Resistance to Micro-organisms
3.14.3 Physiological Compatibility
3.15 Biocompatibility
3.16 Wear Properties
3.17 Molecular Properties
3.17.1 IR Spectra
3.17.2 Crystals
3.17.3 Radii of Gyration
3.17.4 Unit Cell Parameters
3.17.5 X-ray Scattering
3.18 Performance in Service [67]
3.18.1 Thermal and Oxidative Stability
3.18.2 Stability to Sunlight and UV Radiation
3.18.3 Chemical Resistance
3.18.4 Environmental Stress Cracking Resistance
3.19 Permeability
3.19.1 Permeability to Water and Other Liquids
3.19.2 Permeability to Gases
3.20 Crosslinking and Sterilisation
3.21 Correlations Between Polyethylene Properties
4 ADDITIVES
4.1 Antioxidants, Inhibitors, or Heat Stabilisers
4.2 Masterbatches
4.3 Antistatic Agents
4.4 Electromagnetic/Radio Frequency Interference Shielding
4.5 Antifogging Agents
4.6 Biocides
4.7 Blowing Agents
4.8 Biosensitisers and Photosensitisers
4.9 Conducting Agents
4.10 Coupling Agents
4.11 Crosslinking Agents
4.12 Flame Retardants
4.13 Fillers and Reinforcements
4.14 Slip and Antiblocking Agents
4.15 Metal Deactivators and Acid Scavengers
4.16 Nucleating Agents
4.17 Pigments and Colorants
4.18 Additives Used for Polyethylene Fibre Production
4.19 Other Additives
5 RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR
5.1 Molar Mass Effects
5.2 Steady Flow Rheological Properties
5.2.1 Melt Flow Rate or Melt Flow Index
5.2.2 Viscosity versus Shear Rate
5.3 Dynamic Rheological Properties
5.4 Chain Structure Effects
5.4.1 Linear Chains
5.4.2 Branched Chains
5.5 Multiphase Systems: Inhomogeneous Products
6 PROCESSING OF POLYETHYLENE
6.1 Injection Moulding
6.2 Extrusion
6.2.1 Film Extrusion
6.2.2 Co-extrusion
6.2.3 Sheet Extrusion
6.2.4 Extrusion of Compact and Expanded (Foamed) Polyethylene
6.2.5 Ram or Cold Extrusion
6.2.6 Extrusion of Wire and Cable Covering
6.2.7 Extrusion of Monofilament
6.2.8 Cast or Blown Film
6.2.9 Stretched Tapes
6.2.10 Pipes, Tube, and Conduits
6.3 Blow and Stretch Blow Moulding
6.4 Fibre and Filament
6.5 Compression Moulding
6.6 Sintering and Coating
6.7 Thermoforming and Vacuum Forming
6.8 Rotational Moulding and Transfer Moulding
6.8.1 Rotational Moulding
6.8.2 Transfer Moulding
6.9 Casting
6.10 Recycling and Recyclates
7 CONSIDERATIONS OF PRODUCT DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Material Selection
7.3 Processing Techniques
7.3.1 Extrusion
7.3.2 Film Blowing
7.3.3 Thermoforming
7.3.4 Blow Moulding
7.3.5 Rotational Moulding
7.3.6 Compression Moulding
7.3.7 Injection Moulding
7.4 Product Design
7.5 Assembly
7.6 Mould Design
8 POST-PROCESSING AND ASSEMBLY
8.1 Joining
8.1.1 Welding
8.1.2 Adhesive Gluing
8.1.3 Sealability
8.2 Assembly and Fabrication
8.2.1 Machining
8.2.2 Snap-Fit Joints
8.2.3 Mechanical Fastening
8.3 Decorating
8.3.1 Printing and Painting
8.3.2 Metallising and Electroplating
8.3.3 Appliqués
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