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Pain Therapeutics - Drugs, Markets and Companies
Jain PharmaBiotech, Nov 2009, Pages: 519
Executive Summary
1. Basic Aspects of Pain
Introduction
Historical aspects of pain
Pain definitions
A glossary of terms relevant to pain
Pain classification and description
Neuropathic pain
Cancer pain
Bone pain in cancer
Complex regional pain syndrome
Mechanisms of pain
Pain pathways
Role of nociceptors in pain transmission
Gate control and neuromatrix theories of pain
Pain mediators
Role of the sympathetic nervous system in pain
Visceral pain
Pathomechanism of visceral pain
Pathomechanism of neuropathic pain
Role of intact nerve fibers in neuropathic pain
Chemokines as mediators of neuropathic pain
Chemotherapy-induced neuropathic pain
CNS innate immunity and neuropathic pain
Cytokines as mediators of neuropathic pain
Free radicals in generation of neuropathic pain
Genetic basis of neuropathic pain
Gene expression changes in neuropathic pain
Glial activation and neuropathic pain
Immune cell-derived opioids and neuropathic pain
Spinal leptin and neuropathic pain
Tetrahydrobiopterin regulates of neuropathic pain sensitivity
Pathomechanism of migraine
Role of the immune system in pain
Pain and itch
Pathomechanism of itch
Clinical aspects of itch
Molecular pathophysiology of pain
Role of ion channels in pain
Role of sodium channels in pain
Role of potassium ion channels
Role of calcium channels in pain
Acid-sensing ion channels
P2X3 ion channels
Role of TRP ion channels in pain
Genetic basis of pain
Study of genes in pain
Pain in the brain
Neuropathic pain-induced morphological changes in the brain
Change from acute to chronic pain
Role of neuronal plasticity in pain
Descending facilitatory modulation of pain
Pain and transcriptional repressor DREAM
Neurochemistry of pain
Molecular elements of pain in the peripheral nervous system
Molecular elements of pain in the central nervous system
Opioid receptors
Role of AMPA receptors in chronic pain
Kinins
Serotonin
Substance P
Excitatory amino acids
Role of nitric oxide in pain
Prostaglandins
Endocannabinoids
Protein kinase C
Adenosine and adenosine receptors
Vitamin D and pain
Vanilloid receptor
TRPA1 and TRPV1 receptors
Endothelin-B receptors
Nerve growth factor and pain
Adrenomedullin as a pain-related peptide
Biomarkers of pain
Biomarkers of visceral pain
2. Assessment of Pain and Analgesics
Introduction
Animal models of pain
An overview
Selection of animal species as models for pain
Types of noxious stimuli
Animal models of neuropathic pain
Animal models of arthritis
Animal models of peripheral neuropathy
Limitations of current pain models
Biogenic Animal Model of Chronic Pain
Ethical issues concerning animal pain models
Medical evaluation of pain
Chronic pain as a manifestation of various diseases
Assessment of pain patients
Medical examination
Measurement of pain
Quantitative sensory testing
Pain measurement tools for neonates and children
Quantitative sensory testing
Psychological assessment of pain
Brain imaging in pain
Patient outcomes and quality of life during treatment for chronic pain
Collection and analysis of data on pain patients
Evaluation of analgesics
Study of pain in humans
Testing of analgesics in humans
Design of clinical trials for pain
Assessment of neuropathic pain
Placebo effect in pain
Role of electronic pain recording in determination of the placebo effect
Outcome measures for chronic pain trials
Pain, pain therapies and cognitive function
3. Pharmacotherapy of Pain
Introduction
Mechanism of action of currently used pain medications
Non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs
COX-2 inhibitors
Celecoxib
Nimesulide
Rofecoxib
Valdecoxib
Lumiracoxib
Side effects of COX inhibitors
Safety aspects of COX-2 inhibitors in development
Acetaminophen
Antioxidants as analgesics
Opiates and opioids
Innovations in opioid therapy
Oral transmucosal fentanyl
Use of opioids for chronic non-cancer pain
Opioid receptor modulation for visceral pain
Opiorphin
N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonists
Ketamine
CNS 5161
Triptans for treatment of non-migrainous pain
Capsaicin
NGX-4010
Local anesthetics
Topical application
Nerve blocks
Injection of local anesthetics for analgesia
Ultrasound-guided nerve blocks
Topical salicylates for the treatment of pain
Topical rubefacients for acute and chronic pain in adults
Adjunctive analgesics
Antidepressants
Mechanism of analgesic action of antidepressants
Antiepileptic drugs
Mechanism of action of antiepileptic drugs in neuropathic pain
Carbamazepine
Gabapentin
Lamotrigine
Phenytoin
Pregabalin
Topiramate
Valproic acid
Other antiepileptic drugs
Clonidine
Baclofen
Corticosteroids
Calcitonin
Bisphosphonates
Botulinum toxins
Analgesic effect of botulinum toxin A
Engineered botulinum toxin
Adverse effects of analgesics
Gastrointestinal adverse effects of NSAIDs
Measures to reduce gastrointestinal adverse effects of NSAIDs
Cardiovascular adverse effects of COX-2 inhibitors
Adverse effects of opioids
Risk of addiction and development of tolerance
Companies developing products to deter abuse of opioids
Remoxy versus Oxycontin
Hyperalgesia associated with opioids
Respiratory depression
Opioid-associated constipation
Approaches to reduce adverse effects of opioids
PEGylated naloxol
Innovative approaches to modify opioid pharmacology
Adverse effects of non-narcotic analgesics
Adverse effects of immunosuppressants used for relief of pain
4. Management of Pain
Introduction
Sites for pain management
Self-medication at home
Physicians' offices
Major hospitals
Pain centers
Non-pharmacological approaches to pain
Alternative medicine
Acupuncture
Herbs and other plants
Aromatherapy
Self-Controlled Energo Neuro Adaptive Regulation
Behavioral therapy
Cognition and pain
Control over brain activation and pain by using functional MRI
Virtual reality therapy
Local application of heat
Transcutaneous nerve stimulation
Transcranial magnetic stimulation
Neurosurgery for pain relief
Ablative procedures on the nervous system
Procedures on peripheral, spinal and cranial nerves
Vagal nerve stimulation for control of pain
Neuromodulation
Spinal cord stimulation
Brain stimulation
Implantation of drug delivery devices
Management of special types of pain
Acute pain
Management of acute renal colic: NSAIDS vs. opioids
Combination of opioids and NSAIDs
Reasons for inadequate management of acute pain
Perioperative pain management
Opioids for perioperative pain
Gabapentin for reduction of postoperative pain
Ketamine for perioperative pain
Drug combination for perioperative pain
Prolonged duration local anesthesia
Perioperative pain in neurosurgery
Devices for delivery of analgesics in the postoperative period
Pain in the intensive care unit
Pain associated with sports and exercise
Chronic abdominal pain
Functional somatic syndromes
Fibromyalgia syndrome
Pathomechanism of FMS
Management of FMS
New developments in pharmacotherapy of FMS
Erythromelalgia
Irritable bowel syndrome
Opioids for IBS
Tricyclic antidepressants for IBS
Serotonin-modulating drugs for IBS
Musculoskeletal pain
Myofascial pain syndrome
Osteoarthritis
Pathomechanism of osteoarthritis
Pain aggravates osteoarthritis by crosstalk between CNS and the joint
Management of osteoarthritis
Rheumatoid arthritis
Management of pain in rheumatoid arthritis
Disease modifying therapies in rheumatoid arthritis
Resurgence of interest in gold-based treatments for RA
Backache
Use of analgesics for management of back pain
Miscellaneous medical therapies for backache and sciatica
Neck pain
Chronic pelvic pain
Prostatitis
Cancer pain
Opioid treatment of cancer pain
Breakthrough and opioid-insensitive pains
Methods of delivery of opioids for cancer pain
Implantation of drug delivery devices
Management of bone pain in cancer
Use of non-opioid analgesics for cancer pain
Adjuvant drugs for cancer pain
Radiation therapy
Alternative non-pharmacological methods
Anesthetic techniques
Surgical methods of cancer pain relief
Conclusions regarding management of cancer pain
Chronic non-malignant pain
Headache
Migraine
Management of acute migraine
Neurostimulation for migraine
Transcranial magnetic stimulation for migraine
Migraine prophylaxis
Cluster headache
Tension headache
Chronic daily headache
Trigeminal neuralgia
Dental pain
Neuropathic pain
Pathogenesis of neuropathic pain
Chronobiology of neuropathic pain as guide to therapy
Management of neuropathic pain based on mechanism
Guidelines for the management of neuropathic pain
Pharmacotherapy of neuropathic pain
Evidence-based management of neuropathic pain
Management of central neuropathic pain
Neurosurgical approaches to central neuropathic pain
Management of neuropathic pain in syringomyelia
Neuropathic pain associated with spinal cord injury
Peripheral neuropathic pain
Management of postsurgical peripheral neuropathic pain
Management of chemotherapy-induced pain
Morton’s neuroma
Management of peripheral diabetic neuropathy
Postherpetic neuralgia
Complex regional pain syndrome
An algorithm for the management of peripheral neuropathic pain
Phantom limb pain
Pathomechanism of phantom limb pain
Management of phantom limb pain
Pain and depression
Neurochemical link between pain and depression
Management of chronic pain and depression
Miscellaneous painful conditions
Burning mouth syndrome
Chronic unstable angina
Mastalgia
Ophthalmic pain
Pain in Parkinson's disease
Management of itching
Topical applications for itching
Systemic therapies for itching
Non-pharmacological therapies for itch
Management of pain in special population groups
Racial and ethnic differences in pain management
Pain in neonates
Management of pain in children
Management of pain in the elderly
Management of pain in women
Reasons for increased pain perception in women
Chronic pelvic pain in women
Gender differences in response to analgesics
Considerations for pain management in women
Management of pain in neurologically handicapped persons
Management of pain in the cognitively impaired elderly people
Management of pain in brain-damaged minimally conscious patients
Management of pain in the terminally ill
Deficiencies in the management of pain
Negative physician attitudes in pain management
Suggestions for improvement of pain management by healthcare providers
Pain as the fifth vital sign
Multidisciplinary approaches to pain management
5. Drug Delivery for Pain
Introduction
Intra-articular injection for relief of joint pain
Controlled release drug delivery for pain
Accelerating the effect of subcutaneous morphine
Controlled drug delivery at site of pain
Oral extended release opioids
Extended release oral morphine
Controlled release oxycodone
Extended release oxymorphone
Oral extended release tramadol
Extended release gabapentin
Use of nanotechnology for drug delivery for pain
Non-injection methods of delivery of analgesics
Topical applications for pain
Topical local anesthetics
Topical NSAIDs
Topical and transdermal diclofenac
Topical application for postoperative pain
Needle-free drug delivery for pain
Transdermal drug delivery for pain
Relief of pain associated with minor medical procedures
Transdermal fentanyl
Transdermal ketoprofen
Transdermal nitroglycerine as an adjuvant to opioids
Transdermal buprenorphine
Transdermal trans-capsaicin
Powder Injection Systems
Intranasal delivery of analgesics
Intranasal morphine
Intranasal morphine derivatives
Intranasal fentanyl
Intranasal buprenorphine
Intranasal ketamine
Intranasal ketorolac
Nasal formulations for migraine
Oral spray formulations for migraine
Delivery of analgesics by inhalation
Buccal transmucosal and sublingual delivery of analgesics
Application for cancer pain
Application for non-cancer pain
Pumps for drug delivery in pain
Patient controlled analgesia
Postoperative pain pumps
Chronogesic (sufentanil) Pain Therapy System
Spinal pumps for delivery of analgesics
Spinal delivery of analgesics
Epidural administration of encapsulated morphine
Epidural dexamethasone
Perispinal etanercept
Intrathecal ziconotide
Intrathecal CGX1160
Intrathecal neostigmine
Intrathecal prostaglandin antagonists
Intrathecal non-NMDA antagonists
Intrathecal fadolmidine
Intrathecal resiniferatoxin
Concluding remarks on intrathecal delivery of analgesic agents
Intracerebroventricular morphine for pain
Development of drug delivery systems for pain therapy
Delivery of analgesics to the CNS across the blood brain barrier
Drug delivery systems in clinical trials
6. Drug Development for Pain
Introduction
Drugs in development for pain
Current research goals
The ideal analgesic
Pain R & D goals in the pharmaceutical industry
Drug targets in the spinal cord
Drug targets in the brain
Molecular targets for analgesic drugs
Opioid peptide receptors ligands
Buprenorphine
Nociceptin
Tapentadol
Opioid analgesics acting outside the CNS
Opioid analgesics acting at peripheral receptors
Peripherally acting mu-opioid receptor agonists
Targeting of opioid peptide-containing immune cells
Advantages of peripherally selective opioid drugs
Neuropeptide receptor antagonists for improving the efficacy of opioids
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
Mode of action of nACh/neural nicotinic receptor agonists
Potential of central nACh/neural nicotinic receptor agonists
Tumor necrosis factor-a antagonists
Bradykinin antagonists
Newer COX inhibitors
COX-3 inhibitors
Dual cyclooxygenase/lipoxygenase inhibitors
Microsomal prostaglandin E synthase inhibitors
Glutamate receptor antagonists
NMDA receptor modulation for neuropathic pain
Alternatives to direct blocking of NMDA receptors
Glycine antagonists
Metabotropic glutamate receptors
NAALADase inhibitors
a2-adrenergic receptor agonists
Norepinephrine transporter inhibition
Ion channels as drug targets
Acid-sensing ion channels as drug target
P2X ion channel receptor antagonists
Voltage-gated sodium channels as analgesic targets
Capsaicin and VR1 receptor-based analgesics
Vanilloid (capsaicin) receptor antagonists
VR1 receptor agonists
TRPV1 antagonists
TRPV1 antagonists in clinical trials
TRPV1-mediated entry of sodium channel blocker QX-314
Substance P and neurokinin receptor antagonists
Adenosine receptor agonists
Targeting prostanoid synthesis
Cholinergic receptor agonists
Nitric oxide-based analgesics
Nitric oxide-releasing NSAIDs
Pharmacology of NO-SAIDs
COX-inhibiting nitric oxide donors
NO-donating structures to extend life cycle of existing analgesics
Nitric oxide mimetics
Neuronal nitric oxide synthase inhibitors
Inhibitors of heme oxygenase
Free radical scavengers as analgesics
Superoxide dismutase mimetics
Ion channels as targets for analgesic drugs
Calcium channel blockers
Sodium channel modulation
GABA analogues
Subtype-selective GABAergic drugs
Cholecystokinin antagonists
CCR2 receptor blockade
Cannabinoids
Cannabinoid receptor agonists
Cannabidiol
Cannabinor
Nabilone
FAAH inhibitors
PF-3845
URB597
Somatostatin analogues
Corticotropin-releasing factor
Tetrodotoxin based analgesics
Conotoxins as analgesics
Substance P-Saporin
Nerve growth factor antagonists
Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor
Use of histogranin-like compounds for the management of pain
Activation of P2X7 receptors
Cell and gene therapies for pain
Cell therapy
Implantation of chromaffin cells
Role of stem cells in management of pain
Implantation of astrocytes secreting enkephalin
Cells for delivery of antinociceptive molecules
Implantation of genetically engineered cells
Cell therapy for low back pain
Cell therapy for knee pain due to degenerative disorders
Cell therapy for peripheral neuropathy
Concluding remarks on cell therapy for pain
Gene therapy
Rationale of gene therapy for pain
Vectors for gene therapy of pain
Methods of gene delivery for pain
Gene delivery by intrathecal route
Vectors for endogenous analgesic production in cranial neuralgias
Gene delivery by intrathecal route
Gene transfer to the dorsal nerve roots
Gene therapy of peripheral neuropathy
Gene transfer by injections into the brain substance
Zinc finger DNA-binding protein therapeutic for chronic pain
Gene therapy for producing enkephalin to block pain signals
Targeting nuclear factor-kB
Gene therapy targeted to neuroimmune component of chronic pain
Antisense therapy for pain
siRNA for relief of neuropathic pain
Potential applications of gene therapy for management of pain
Concluding remarks about gene therapy for pain
Preclinical development of pain drugs
NGF-blocking antibody
Prostatic acid phosphatase as a novel analgesic
Preclinical development of drugs for neuropathic pain
5-HT receptor agonists
A-803467
AM1241
Artemin/Neuroblastin
Capsazepine
Central nACh receptor agonists
CGP 35024
Drugs that suppress glial activation
Erythropoietin
Gene therapy for neuropathic pain
NCX 8001
NR2B subtype NMDA receptor ligands
NW-1029
R116301
Targeting tumor necrosis factor
Future targets for osteoarthritic pain
Pain drugs in clinical trials
Clinical trials of miscellaneous drugs for pain
Alvimopan
Asimadoline
EN3202
Oxytrex
Drugs in clinical trials for postsurgical pain
Bicifadine
DepoMorphine
TC-2696
Cox-2 inhibitors in clinical trials
Clinical trials of disease modifying therapies for rheumatoid arthritis
Drugs in clinical development for neuropathic pain
Adenosine A1 agonists for neuropathic pain
Botulinum toxin type A
CPL7075
D-amino acid oxidase inhibitors
Glyx-13
IP-751
Lacosamide
Oxcarbazepine
Perampanel
Ralfinamide
Retigabine
SB-509
SCP-1
TC-6499
Tebanicline
Tezampanel
Thalidomide
TRO19622
V3381
XP-13512
Zonisamide
Drug discovery and development for migraine
Drugs in clinical development for migraine
Drug development for visceral pain
7. Legal and regulatory issues of pain management
Pain relief as a legal right
Pain relief and the WHO
Regulatory issues
Opioids and cannabinoids
DEA and use of opioids for pain relief in terminal care
FDA and COX-2 inhibitors
Legal issues of COX-2 inhibitors
Misuse of analgesics
Opioids and regulatory agencies
Misuse of fentanyl
8. Pain Markets
Introduction
Epidemiological basis of pain markets
Cancer
Neuropathic pain
Trigeminal neuralgia
Arthritis
Backache
Migraine
Multiple sclerosis
Irritable bowel syndrome
Chronic pelvic pain
Chronic pain due to traumatic brain injury
Postsurgical pain
Economics of pain
Pain as a driver of healthcare costs
Disability and financial loss through pain
Pain markets based on painful conditions
The cancer pain market
The arthritis pain market
Postsurgical pain market
The backache market
The headache market
Neuropathic pain market
Fibromyalgia market
Pain markets based on drugs
Opioids
Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs
Transdermal pain therapeutics
Anesthesia
Antiepileptic drugs as analgesics
Other drugs
Hospital vs retail share of pain market
Hospital versus retail opioid market
Devices for pain
Pain markets according to geographical areas
Cost effectiveness of various approaches
Unfulfilled R&D needs in pain therapy
Under treatment of pain
Unfulfilled needs in drug development for chronic pain
Strategies for developing pain markets
Finding alternatives to intrathecal administration for chronic pain
Development of other applications of analgesic drugs
Partnership of patients, pharmacists and companies
Factors that may influence future pain markets
Drivers of pain markets
Public surveys as indicators of impact of pain on people
Effect of regulatory reviews on markets for pain products
Novel versus older therapies for pain
9. Future of Pain Therapeutics
Introduction
Advances in the understanding of pain
Pathogenesis of chronic pain
Role of glia in neuropathic pain
Molecular and neurobiological techniques
Improved understanding of cancer pain
Advances in drug discovery and development for pain
Novel targets for drug discovery for pain
PTH2 receptor
Modulators of endogenous cannabinoids
Application of new technologies to pain therapeutics
Application of nanobiotechnology to pain therapeutics
Technologies for the manufacture of analgesics
Future trends and needs in pain management
Pain management in future healthcare systems
Systems biology approach to pain
Personalized pain management
Pharmacogenomics and pharmacogenetics of pain
Genetic mutations associated with reduced response to analgesics
Genetic mutations with loss of pain
Mechanism-specific management of pain
Preoperative testing to tailor postoperative analgesic requirements
Strategies for improving pain management
10. Companies Involved in Pain Therapeutics
Introduction
Profiles of companies
Collaborations
11. References
Tables
Table 1-1: Landmarks in the history of pain therapeutics
Table 1-2: Classification of chronic pain
Table 1-3: Classification of neuropathic pain
Table 1-4: Classification of chronic cancer pain according to cause
Table 1-5: Percentage of patients with pain according to the type of cancer
Table 1-6: Key molecular elements of pain in the peripheral nervous system
Table 1-7: Key molecular elements of pain in the central nervous system
Table 2-1: IASP guidelines for the use of animals in pain studies
Table 2-2: Chronic pain as a manifestation of other diseases
Table 2-3: Recommendations for assessing patient satisfaction with pain management
Table 3-1: Classification of some currently used pain medications according to mechanism
Table 3-2: Drugs used for the treatment of pain
Table 3-3: Selective COX-2 inhibitors in clinical use for pain
Table 3-4: Antiepileptic drugs with analgesic effect
Table 3-5: Companies developing products to deter abuse of opioids
Table 4-1: Non-pharmacological approaches to management of pain
Table 4-2: Companies involved in neuromodulation therapy for pain
Table 4-3: Reasons for the inadequate management of acute pain
Table 4-4: Causes of chronic backache
Table 4-5: Management of chronic pelvic pain
Table 4-6: Management of pain in cancer
Table 4-7: Definitions of tolerance, physiological dependence, withdrawal and addiction
Table 4-8: A simplified classification of headache
Table 4-9: Various methods for the management of migraine
Table 4-10: Management of neuropathic pain based on mechanism and diagnosis
Table 4-11: Management of central neuropathic pain
Table 4-12: Current management of peripheral diabetic neuropathy
Table 4-13: Treatment strategies for postherpetic neuralgia
Table 4-14: Management of complex regional pain syndrome
Table 4-15: Methods of treating phantom limb pain
Table 4-16: Anti-itching therapies
Table 4-17: Suggested improvements in the management of pain
Table 5-1: A classification of drug delivery methods used in management of pain
Table 5-2: Selected marketed non-injection drug delivery systems for pain
Table 5-3: Spinal administration of drugs for pain
Table 5-4: Selected drug delivery systems for pain in clinical development
Table 6-1: Classification of drugs in development for pain
Table 6-2: Major opioids receptors and their ligands
Table 6-3: Types of TRPV1 antagonists
Table 6-4: TRPV1 antagonists in clinical trials
Table 6-5: Strategies to counteract pain at various levels at periphery and in the CNS
Table 6-6: NO-related therapies for pain
Table 6-7: Cannabinoid receptor agonists in clinical development as analgesics
Table 6-8: Preclinical studies on cannabinoid (CB2) receptor agonists as analgesics
Table 6-9: Experimental gene therapy approaches for relief of pain
Table 6-10: Selected preclinical approaches to pain therapy
Table 6-11: Selected preclinical drugs for neuropathic pain
Table 6-12: Selected clinical trials of miscellaneous drugs for pain
Table 6-13: Selected clinical trials of drugs for postsurgical pain
Table 6-14: COX-2 inhibitors in clinical development
Table 6-15: Disease modifying antirheumatic drugs in clinical trials
Table 6-16: Clinical trials of drugs for neuropathic pain
Table 6-17: Selected drugs in clinical development for migraine
Table 6-18: Therapeutic targets for treating visceral pain
Table 8-1: Market values for various painful conditions 2008-2018
Table 8-2: Changes in market shares of drugs for neuropathic pain 2008-2018
Table 8-3: Markets for pain according to therapies 2008-2018
Table 8-4: Distribution of value of pain therapeutics in major markets 2008-2018
Table 8-5: Distribution of value of opioids in major pain markets 2008-2018
Table 8-6: Distribution of value of NSAIDs in major pain markets 2008-2018
Table 8-7: Strategies for developing pain markets
Table 9-1: P450 isoforms in the metabolism of drugs used in the management of pain
Table 10-1: Product pipeline of Adolor Corporation
Table 10-2: Endo Pharmaceuticals' products in clinical trials
Table 10-3: Selected collaborations in the area of pain management
Figures
Figure 1-1: Afferent pain pathways
Figure 1-2: Evolution of the gate control theory
Figure 1-3: The body self-neurometric
Figure 1-4: Various ligands and receptors on the peripheral terminals of nociceptive nerve fibers
Figure 1-5: Prostaglandin biosynthesis pathway
Figure 2-1: Biopsychosocial factors that interact and modulate the experience of pain
Figure 2-2: Pain intensity scales
Figure 4-1: The WHO step ladder for pain
Figure 4-2: An algorithm for the acute management of migraine
Figure 4-3: Neuroimmune activation events leading to sensitization of CNS
Figure 4-4: An algorithm for the management of peripheral neuropathic pain
Figure 4-5: Algorithm for management of patients with chronic pain and depression
Figure 5-1: Powder Injection Systems
Figure 6-1: Attributes of the ideal analgesic
Figure 6-2: Nerve targeting drug delivery system for gene therapy of pain
Figure 8-1: Unfulfilled needs in the treatment for chronic pain
Figure 9-1: Impact of new technologies on pain therapeutics
Figure 9-2: A scheme of personalized management of pain
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