Polysaccharides in Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Applications

Smithers Information Ltd, July 2011

Important research for design of new systems for drug delivery and immunomodulation.

This book presents new and specific aspects in the field of polysaccharides and their derivatives recommended for use in medicine and pharmacy. At the same time the aspects developed in this book will be useful to design new systems for drugs delivery, immunomodulation, and new materials based on polysaccharides isolated from different sources and their derivatives.

The structure and properties of polysaccharides from different sources with potential applications in the fields of medicine and pharmacy are discussed. Thus, the structural aspects concerning hyaluronic acids, fungal extra cellular polysaccharides, celluloses, alginates, hemicelluloses, dextran, glyconjugates and cyclodextrins are covered. The applications are described both for nonmodified and modified forms of polysaccharides for drug delivery, immunomodulation, tissue engineering and hydrogel preparation.

Contributors
Preface

1. Configurations, Structures and Morphologies of Cellulose
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Structure
1.2.1 Molecular Structure
1.2.2 Hydrogen Bonding
1.2.3 Crystal Modifications
1.2.4 Morphology
1.3 Properties
1.3.1 Solubility
1.3.2 Chemical Reactivity
1.4 Sources of Cellulose
1.5 Micro- and Nano-scale Cellulose Materials
1.5.1 Microfi brillated Cellulose
1.5.2 Microcrystalline Cellulose
1.5.3 Cellulose Whiskers
1.5.4 Bacterial Cellulose
1.6 Some Comments about Further Applications of Plant Cellulose
1.7 Concluding Remarks
References

2. Hemicelluloses in Pharmacy and Medicine
2.1 Sources and Structure of Hemicelluloses
2.2 Applications of Hemicelluloses
2.3 Conclusion
References

3. Fungal Exopolysaccharides
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Determining the Structures of Fungal Exocellular Glucans
3.2.1 Purifi cation of Glucans
3.2.2 Determination of Monosaccharide Composition
3.2.3 Determination of Anomeric Form of Glucopyranose by Infrared Spectroscopy
3.2.4 Determination of Linkage Positions by Methylation Analysis
3.2.5 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
3.2.6 The Periodate Oxidation Reaction
3.2.7 Smith Degradation
3.2.8 Periodate Oxidation and Smith Degradation
3.2.9 Enzymatic Analysis
3.3 Chemistry of Exocellular Fungal Glucans
3.3.1 Fungal ß-Glucans
3.3.2 Fungal a-Glucans
3.4 Relationship between Chemical and Physical Properties of Fungal Exocellular Glucans
3.4.1 Fungal ß-Glucans
3.4.2 Fungal a-Glucans
3.5 Biological Activity of Fungal (1,3)-ß-Glucans
3.6 Biosynthesis of Fungal Exocellular Glucans
3.6.1 Assembly of ß-Glucans
3.6.2 Assembly of Pullulan
3.7 Applications of Fungal Glucans
3.7.1 Fungal ß-Glucans
3.7.2 Fungal a-Glucans
3.8 Factors Affecting Exocellular Fungal Glucan Production
3.8.1 General Considerations
3.8.2 Carbon Source
3.8.3 Nitrogen Source
3.8.4 Culture pH
3.8.5 Dissolved Oxygen
3.8.6 Fermenter Confi guration
3.8.7 Fungal Morphology
3.8.8 The Infl uence of Other Media Components on ß-Glucan Yields
3.9 The Role of Fungal Glucanases in Affecting Glucan Yields
3.9.1 Fungal ß-Glucans
3.9.2 Fungal a-Glucans
3.10 Conclusion
References
Acknowledgements

4. Pullulan for Biomedical Uses
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Structure and Rheological Properties
4.2.1 Structure and Enzymatic Degradation
4.2.2 Rheology of Pullulan Solutions and Films
4.3 Biological Properties of Pullulan and Some Derivatives in Solution
4.3.1 Chemical Modifi cations
4.4 Pullulan-Based Hydrogels as New Biomedical Materials
4.4.1 From Nanogels
4.4.2 …To Macrogels
4.4.3 Pullulan-based Core-shell Nanoparticles for Imaging and Therapy
References

5. Cellulose and Its Use for Blood Purification
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Concepts of Blood Purification
5.3 Cellulose: Derivation and Structure
5.4 Cellulose and Its Use in Blood Purification
5.5 Membrane Performance with Respect to Blood Purification
5.6 Clinical Concepts of Membrane Performance
5.6.1 Solute Transport
5.6.2 Fluid Removal
5.6.3 Biocompatibility
5.7 Contemporary Issues Relating to the Use of Cellulose in Blood Purification
5.8 The Future Role of Cellulose in Blood Purification Processes
References

6. Immunomodulatory Effects of Botanical Polysaccharides
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Immunomodulatory Activity of Fungal-, Algae- and Lichen-derived Polysaccharides
6.3 Immunomodulatory Activity of Plant-derived Polysaccharides
6.4 Effect of Plant Polysaccharides on Neutrophil Function
6.5 Antioxidant Properties of Botanical Polysaccharides
6.6 Mitogenic Activity of Botanical Polysaccharides
6.7 Role of Intestinal Immune System in Modulating the Activity of Botanical Polysaccharides
6.8 Antiviral Activity of Botanical Polysaccharides
6.9 Botanical Polysaccharides as Adjuvants
6.10 Antitumour Effects of Botanical Polysaccharides
6.11 Conclusion
References
Acknowledgements

7. Pharmaceutical Applications of Cyclodextrins
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Main Cyclodextrins
7.2.1 Nature and Characteristics of Natural Cyclodextrins
7.2.2 Hydrophilic Derivatives
7.2.3 Amphiphilic Cyclodextrins Derivatives
7.2.4 Inclusion Formation
7.2.5 Toxicity
7.3 Interest of Cyclodextrins in Pharmaceutical Uses
7.3.1 Reduction or Elimination of Bitter Taste of Drugs
7.3.2 Change of State
7.3.3 Improvement in Stability
7.3.4 Increase in Solubility
7.3.5 Improvement in Bioavailability
7.3.6 Decrease in Side Effects
7.4 Pharmaceutical Industry
7.5 Recent Aspects of Pharmaceutical Applications of Cyclodextrins
7.5.1 Use of Cyclodextrins to Formulate Peptides or Proteins
7.5.2 New Cyclodextrins Derivatives
7.5.3 Cyclodextrins and Lipid-based Systems
7.5.4 Cyclodextrins in Nanoparticulate Drug Delivery Systems
7.6 Conclusion
References

8. Bioactivity of Chondroitin Sulfate
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Cytoprotection
8.3 Mitogenesis
8.4 Differentiation
8.5 Neuronal Growth
8.6 Enzymatic Activity
8.7 Arthritis
8.7.1 Anti-infl ammatory Effects of Chondroitin Sulfate
8.7.2 Modulation of Enzymatic Activity by Chondroitin Sulfate
8.7.3 Effects of Chondroitin Sulfate on Extracellular Matrix Synthesis and Synovial Fluid Composition
8.8 Biomaterials
8.8.1 Heart Valve Tissue Engineering
8.8.2 Wound Healing
8.8.3 Cartilage Tissue Engineering
8.9 Conclusion
References

9. Micro- and Nano-particles Based on Polysaccharides for Drug Release Applications
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Applications of Polysaccharide Nano/Microparticles in Ophthalmologic Therapy
9.3 Applications of Polysaccharide Nano/Microparticles in Cancer Therapy
9.4 Applications of Polysaccharide Nano/Microparticles in Infectious Diseases Therapy
9.5 Applications of Polysaccharide Nano/Microparticles in Diabetes Therapy
9.6 Applications of Polysaccharide Nano/Microparticles in Respiratory Diseases Therapy
9.7 Applications of Polysaccharide Nano/Microparticles in Diagnostics
References
Acknowledgements

10. Carbohydrate-Containing Dendrimers in Biomedical Applications
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Sugar Code – A Key to Biodiversity
10.3 The Dendrimeric State
10.3.1 Physicochemical Properties and General Consequences
10.3.2 Dendrimeric Effects
10.4 Synthesis of Dendrimers: Convergent and Divergent Approaches
10.5 Dendrimeric Libraries
10.6 Dendrimers in Drug Solubilisation and Delivery
10.7 Dendrimers in Gene Delivery
10.8 Carbohydrate Interactions of Glycopeptide Dendrimers
10.8.1 Bacteria
10.8.2 Viruses
10.8.3 Cancer
10.8.4 Other Examples
10.9 Conclusion
References

Abbreviations
Index

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