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The 2011 Report on Iron and Steel Mills and Ferroalloy Manufacturing: World Market Segmentation by City
ICON Group International, Jan 2011, Pages: 335
Market Potential Estimation Methodology
Overview
This study covers the world outlook for iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing across more than 2000 cities. For the year reported, estimates are given for the latent demand, or potential industry earnings (P.I.E.), for the city in question (in millions of U.S. dollars), the percent share the city is of the region and of the globe. These comparative benchmarks allow the reader to quickly gauge a city vis-à-vis others. Using econometric models which project fundamental economic dynamics within each country and across countries, latent demand estimates are created. This report does not discuss the specific players in the market serving the latent demand, nor specific details at the product level. The study also does not consider short-term cyclicalities that might affect realized sales. The study, therefore, is strategic in nature, taking an aggregate and long-run view, irrespective of the players or products involved.
This study does not report actual sales data (which are simply unavailable, in a comparable or consistent manner in virtually all of the cities of the world). This study gives, however, my estimates for the worldwide latent demand, or the P.I.E. for iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing. It also shows how the P.I.E. is divided across the world’s cities. In order to make these estimates, a multi-stage methodology was employed that is often taught in courses on international strategic planning at graduate schools of business.
What is Latent Demand and the P.I.E.?
The concept of latent demand is rather subtle. The term latent typically refers to something that is dormant, not observable, or not yet realized. Demand is the notion of an economic quantity that a target population or market requires under different assumptions of price, quality, and distribution, among other factors. Latent demand, therefore, is commonly defined by economists as the industry earnings of a market when that market becomes accessible and attractive to serve by competing firms. It is a measure, therefore, of potential industry earnings (P.I.E.) or total revenues (not profit) if a market is served in an efficient manner. It is typically expressed as the total revenues potentially extracted by firms. The “market” is defined at a given level in the value chain. There can be latent demand at the retail level, at the wholesale level, the manufacturing level, and the raw materials level (the P.I.E. of higher levels of the value chain being always smaller than the P.I.E. of levels at lower levels of the same value chain, assuming all levels maintain minimum profitability).
The latent demand for iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing is not actual or historic sales. Nor is latent demand future sales. In fact, latent demand can be lower either lower or higher than actual sales if a market is inefficient (i.e., not representative of relatively competitive levels). Inefficiencies arise from a number of factors, including the lack of international openness, cultural barriers to consumption, regulations, and cartel-like behavior on the part of firms. In general, however, latent demand is typically larger than actual sales in a city market.
Another reason why sales do not equate to latent demand is exchange rates. In this report, all figures assume the long-run efficiency of currency markets. Figures, therefore, equate values based on purchasing power parities across countries. Short-run distortions in the value of the dollar, therefore, do not figure into the estimates. Purchasing power parity estimates of country income were collected from official sources, and extrapolated using standard econometric models. The report uses the dollar as the currency of comparison, but not as a measure of transaction volume. The units used in this report are: US $ mln.
For reasons discussed later, this report does not consider the notion of “unit quantities”, only total latent revenues (i.e., a calculation of price times quantity is never made, though one is implied). The units used in this report are U.S. dollars not adjusted for inflation (i.e., the figures incorporate inflationary trends) and not adjusted for future dynamics in exchange rates (i.e., the figures reflect average exchange rates over recent history). If inflation rates or exchange rates vary in a substantial way compared to recent experience, actually sales can also exceed latent demand (when expressed in U.S. dollars, not adjusted for inflation). On the other hand, latent demand can be typically higher than actual sales as there are often distribution inefficiencies that reduce actual sales below the level of latent demand.
As mentioned earlier, this study is strategic in nature, taking an aggregate and long-run view, irrespective of the players or products involved. If fact, all the current products or services on the market can cease to exist in their present form (i.e., at a brand-, R&D specification, or corporate-image level) and all the players can be replaced by other firms (i.e., via exits, entries, mergers, bankruptcies, etc.), and there will still be an international latent demand for iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing at the aggregate level. Product and service offering details, and the actual identity of the players involved, while important for certain issues, are relatively unimportant for estimates of latent demand.
The Methodology
In order to estimate the latent demand for iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing on a city-by-city basis, I used a multi-stage approach. Before applying the approach, one needs a basic theory from which such estimates are created. In this case, I heavily rely on the use of certain basic economic assumptions. In particular, there is an assumption governing the shape and type of aggregate latent demand functions. Latent demand functions relate the income of a country, city, state, household, or individual to realized consumption. Latent demand (often realized as consumption when an industry is efficient), at any level of the value chain, takes place if an equilibrium in realized. For firms to serve a market, they must perceive a latent demand and be able to serve that demand at a minimal return. The single most important variable determining consumption, assuming latent demand exists, is income (or other financial resources at higher levels of the value chain). Other factors that can pivot or shape demand curves include external or exogenous shocks (i.e., business cycles), and or changes in utility for the product in question.
Ignoring, for the moment, exogenous shocks and variations in utility across countries, the aggregate relation between income and consumption has been a central theme in economics. The figure below concisely summarizes one aspect of problem. In the 1930s, John Meynard Keynes conjectured that as incomes rise, the average propensity to consume would fall. The average propensity to consume is the level of consumption divided by the level of income, or the slope of the line from the origin to the consumption function. He estimated this relationship empirically and found it to be true in the short-run (mostly based on cross-sectional data). The higher the income, the lower the average propensity to consume. This type of consumption function is labeled 'A' in the figure below (note the rather flat slope of the curve). In the 1940s, another macroeconomist, Simon Kuznets, estimated long-run consumption functions which indicated that the marginal propensity to consume was rather constant (using time series data across countries). This type of consumption function is show as 'B' in the figure below (note the higher slope and zero-zero intercept). The average propensity to consume is constant.
Is it declining or is it constant? A number of other economists, notably Franco Modigliani and Milton Friedman, in the 1950s (and Irving Fisher earlier), explained why the two functions were different using various assumptions on intertemporal budget constraints, savings, and wealth. The shorter the time horizon, the more consumption can depend on wealth (earned in previous years) and business cycles. In the long-run, however, the propensity to consume is more constant. Similarly, in the long run, households, industries or countries with no income eventually have no consumption (wealth is depleted). While the debate surrounding beliefs about how income and consumption are related and interesting, in this study a very particular school of thought is adopted. In particular, we are considering the latent demand for iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing across some 230 countries. The smallest have fewer than 10,000 inhabitants. I assume that all of these counties fall along a 'long-run' aggregate consumption function. This long-run function applies despite some of these countries having wealth, current income dominates the latent demand for iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing. So, latent demand in the long-run has a zero intercept. However, I allow firms to have different propensities to consume (including being on consumption functions with differing slopes, which can account for differences in industrial organization, and end-user preferences).
Given this overriding philosophy, I will now describe the methodology used to create the latent demand estimates for iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing. Since ICON Group has asked me to apply this methodology to a large number of categories, the rather academic discussion below is general and can be applied to a wide variety of categories, not just iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing.
Step 1. Product Definition and Data Collection
Any study of latent demand across countries requires that some standard be established to define “efficiently served”. Having implemented various alternatives and matched these with market outcomes, I have found that the optimal approach is to assume that certain key countries or cities are more likely to be at or near efficiency than others. These are given greater weight than others in the estimation of latent demand compared to others for which no known data are available. Of the many alternatives, I have found the assumption that the world’s highest aggregate income and highest income-per-capita markets reflect the best standards for “efficiency”. High aggregate income alone is not sufficient (i.e., China has high aggregate income, but low income per capita and can not assumed to be efficient). Aggregate income can be operationalized in a number of ways, including gross domestic product (for industrial categories), or total disposable income (for household categories; population times average income per capita, or number of households times average household income per capita). Brunei, Nauru, Kuwait, and Lichtenstein are examples of countries with high income per capita, but not assumed to be efficient, given low aggregate level of income (or gross domestic product); these countries have, however, high incomes per capita but may not benefit from the efficiencies derived from economies of scale associated with large economies. Only countries with high income per capita and large aggregate income are assumed efficient. This greatly restricts the pool of countries to those in the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development), like the United States, or the United Kingdom (which were earlier than other large OECD economies to liberalize their markets).
The selection of countries is further reduced by the fact that not all countries in the OECD report industry revenues at the category level. Countries that typically have ample data at the aggregate level that meet the efficiency criteria include the United States, the United Kingdom and in some cases France and Germany.
Latent demand is therefore estimated using data collected for relatively efficient markets from independent data sources (e.g. Euromonitor, Mintel, Thomson Financial Services, the U.S. Industrial Outlook, the World Resources Institute, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, various agencies from the United Nations, industry trade associations, the International Monetary Fund, and the World Bank). Depending on original data sources used, the definition of “iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing” is established. In the case of this report, the data were reported at the aggregate level, with no further breakdown or definition. In other words, any potential product or service that might be incorporated within iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing falls under this category. Public sources rarely report data at the disaggregated level in order to protect private information from individual firms that might dominate a specific product-market. These sources will therefore aggregate across components of a category and report only the aggregate to the public. While private data are certainly available, this report only relies on public data at the aggregate level without reliance on the summation of various category components. In other words, this report does not aggregate a number of components to arrive at the “whole”. Rather, it starts with the “whole”, and estimates the whole for all cities and the world at large (without needing to know the specific parts that went into the whole in the first place).
Given this caveat, this study covers “iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing” as defined by the North American Industrial Classification system or NAICS (pronounced “nakes”). iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing The NAICS code for iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing is 3311. It is for this definition of iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing that the aggregate latent demand estimates are derived. “Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing” is specifically defined as follows:
3311
Iron and Steel Mills and Ferroalloy Manufacturing
33111
This industry comprises establishments primarily engaged in one or more of the following: (1) direct reduction of iron ore; (2) manufacturing pig iron in molten or solid form; (3) converting pig iron into steel; (4) manufacturing ferroalloys; (5) making steel; (6) making steel and manufacturing shapes (e.g., bar, plate, rod, sheet, strip, wire); and (7) making steel and forming pipe and tube.
331111
This U.S. industry comprises establishments primarily engaged in one or more of the following: (1) direct reduction of iron ore; (2) manufacturing pig iron in molten or solid form; (3) converting pig iron into steel; (4) making steel; (5) making steel and manufacturing shapes (e.g., bar, plate, rod, sheet, strip, wire); and (6) making steel and forming tube and pipe.
3311111
Coke oven and blast furnace products
33111111
Coke oven and blast furnace products, made in steel mills
3311111101
Coke oven products, coke (excluding screenings and breeze), made in steel mills
3311111103
Coke oven products, screenings and breeze, made in steel mills
3311111105
Coke oven products, crude tar, made in steel mills
3311111107
Coke oven products, crude light oil, made in steel mills
3311111109
Coke oven products, other (including tar derivatives, ammonia, light oil derivations, and coke oven gas), made in steel mills
3311111111
Blast furnace pig iron (excluding ferroalloys), including pig iron with silicon content up to and including 6 percent silicon, made in steel mills
3311111113
Blast furnace slag, excluding ferroalloys, made in steel mills
3311111115
Blast furnace sinter from ore, flue dust, blast furnace gas and other materials (excluding ferroalloys), made in steel mills
3311111117
Other blast furnace products, excluding ferroalloys, made in steel mills
3311112
Iron and steel powders, paste, and flakes
33111121
Iron and steel powders, paste, and flakes
3311112100
Primary iron and steel powders, paste, and flakes
3311113
Steel ingots and semifinished shapes and forms
33111131
Steel ingots and semifinished shapes and forms, made in steel mills
3311113100
Steel ingots and semifinished shapes and forms, made in steel mills
3311113110
Carbon steel ingots
3311113120
Alloy steel ingots
3311113130
Stainless steel ingots
3311113140
Carbon steel blooms, billets, sheet bars, tin mill bars, tube rounds, and skelp
3311113150
Carbon steel slabs
3311113160
Alloy steel blooms, billets, sheet bars, tube rounds, and skelp
3311113170
Alloy steel slabs
3311113180
Stainless steel blooms, billets, slabs, sheet bars, tube rounds, and skelp
3311113190
Carbon steel wire rods
33111131A0
Alloy steel wire rods
33111131B0
Stainless steel wire rods
3311115
Hot rolled steel sheet and strip
33111151
Hot rolled steel sheet and strip (including tin mill products, tinplate, blackplate, terneplate, and tin_free steel), made in steel mills
3311115100
Hot rolled steel sheet and strip (including tin mill products, tinplate, blackplate, terneplate, and tin_free steel), made in steel mills
3311115110
Carbon steel sheet, hot rolled, including hot rolled bands
3311115120
Carbon steel sheet and strip, galvanized, hot dipped
3311115130
Carbon steel sheet and strip, galvanized, electrolytic
3311115140
Carbon steel sheet and strip, electrical
3311115150
Carbon steel sheet and strip, all other metallic coated, including long ternes
3311115160
Carbon steel strip, hot rolled
3311115170
Alloy steel sheet, hot rolled
3311115180
Alloy steel sheet and strip, galvanized hot dipped
3311115190
Alloy steel sheet and strip, all other metallic coated (including electrolytic)
33111151A0
Alloy steel strip, hot rolled
33111151B0
Stainless steel sheet and strip, hot rolled
33111151C0
Carbon steel tin mill products, black plate
33111151D0
Carbon steel tin mill products, electrolytic and hot dipped tin plate
33111151E0
Carbon steel tin mill products, tin free steel
33111151F0
Carbon steel tin mill products, all other tin mill products, including short ternes and foil
3311117
Hot rolled bars, plates, and structural shapes
33111171
Hot rolled steel bars and bar shapes, plates, structural shapes, and piling (including concrete reinforcing and tool steel bars), made in steel mills
3311117100
Hot rolled steel bars and bar shapes, plates, structural shapes, and piling (including concrete reinforcing and tool steel bars), made in steel mills
3311117110
Carbon steel plates, cut lengths
3311117120
Carbon steel plates, in coils
3311117130
Carbon steel structural shapes (heavy), wide flange
3311117140
Carbon steel structural shapes (heavy), standard
3311117150
Alloy steel plates, cut lengths
3311117160
Alloy steel plates, in coils
3311117170
Alloy steel structural shapes (3 in. and under)
3311117180
Stainless steel plates and structurals
3311117190
Carbon steel bars, hot rolled, except concrete reinforcing
33111171A0
Carbon steel bars, light structurals (under 3 in.)
33111171B0
Carbon steel bars, concrete reinforcing
33111171C0
Alloy steel bars, hot rolled, including structural shapes under 3 in.
33111171D0
Stainless steel bars, hot rolled
33111171E0
Carbon steel sheet piling and bearing piles
33111171F0
Alloy tool steel, high speed
33111171G0
Alloy tool steel, other (excluding high speed)
3311119
Steel wire
33111191
Steel wire, including galvanized and other coated wire, made in steel mills producing wire rods or hot rolled bars
3311119100
Steel wire, including galvanized and other coated wire, made in steel mills producing wire rods or hot rolled bars
331111B
Steel pipe and tubes
331111B1
Steel pipes and tubes, made in steel mills producing semifinished shapes or plate
331111B100
Steel pipes and tubes, made in steel mills producing semifinished shapes or plate
331111D
Cold rolled steel sheets and strip
331111D1
Cold rolled steel sheet and strip, made in steel mills producing hot rolled sheet or strip
331111D100
Cold rolled steel sheet and strip, made in steel mills producing hot rolled sheet or strip
331111F
Cold finished steel bars
331111F1
Cold finished steel bars and bar shapes, made in steel mills producing hot rolled bars and bar shapes
331111F100
Cold finished steel bars and bar shapes, made in steel mills producing hot rolled bars and bar shapes
331111H
Seamless rolled ring forgings
331111H1
Seamless carbon steel and alloy steel rolled ring forgings (excluding stainless and hi_temperature), made in steel mills
331111H101
Seamless carbon steel and alloy steel rolled ring forgings (excluding stainless and hi_temperature), made in steel mills
331111H2
Seamless stainless steel and hi_temperature (iron, nickel, or cobalt_base alloy) rolled ring forgings, made in steel mills
331111H203
Seamless stainless steel and hi_temperature (iron, nickel, or cobalt_base alloy) rolled ring forgings, made in steel mills
331111J
Open die or smith forgings
331111J1
Carbon and alloy steel open die and smith forgings (hammer and press), excluding stainless and hi_temperature, made in steel mills
331111J101
Carbon and alloy steel open die and smith forgings (hammer and press), excluding stainless and hi_temperature, made in steel mills
331111J2
Stainless steel and hi_temperature (iron, nickel, or cobalt_base alloy) open die and smith forgings (hammer and press), made in steel mills
331111J203
Stainless steel and hi_temperature (iron, nickel, or cobalt_base alloy) open die and smith forgings (hammer and press), made in steel mills
331111L
Other steel mill products, including steel rails
331111L1
Other steel mill products, including steel rails, except wire products
331111L100
Other steel mill products, including steel rails, except wire products
331111L110
Carbon steel rails, standard tee (over 60 lb per yard)
331111L120
Carbon steel rails, all other, including light (60 lb per yd and under)
331111L130
Carbon steel joint bars
331111L140
Carbon steel tie plates
331111L150
Carbon steel wheels (rolled and forged)
331111L160
Carbon steel axles (rolled and forged)
331111L170
Carbon steel track spikes
331111M
Miscellaneous receipts
331111P
Primary products
331111S
Secondary products
331111SM
Secondary products and miscellaneous receipts
331112
This U.S. industry comprises establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing electrometallurgical ferroalloys. Ferroalloys add critical elements, such as silicon and manganese for carbon steel and chromium, vanadium, tungsten, titanium, and molybdenum for low- and high-alloy metals. Ferroalloys include iron-rich alloys and more pure forms of elements added during the steel manufacturing process that alter or improve the characteristics of the metal being made.
3311121
Ferrochromium
33111211
Ferrochromium, including briquettes, ferrochromium silicon, exothermic chromium additives, and other chromium alloys
3311121100
Ferrochromium, including briquettes, ferrochromium silicon, exothermic chromium additives, and other chromium alloys
3311123
Ferrosilicon
33111231
Ferrosilicon, including briquettes, and other silicon alloys
3311123100
Ferrosilicon, including briquettes, and other silicon alloys
3311125
Other ferroalloys and ferrous products
33111251
Ferrous superalloys
3311125101
Ferrous superalloys
33111252
Other ferroalloys, including silvery iron, ferromanganese, manganese metal, silicomanganese and ferrospiegeleisen
3311125203
Other ferroalloys, including silvery iron, ferromanganese, manganese metal, silicomanganese and ferrospiegeleisen
33111253
Other ferrous products made in electric and other furnaces
3311125305
Other ferrous products made in electric and other furnaces
331112M
Miscellaneous receipts
331112P
Primary products
331112S
Secondary products
331112SM
Secondary products and miscellaneous receipts
Step 2. Filtering and Smoothing
Based on the aggregate view of iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing as defined above, data were then collected for as many similar countries and cities as possible for that same definition, at the same level of the value chain. This generates a convenience sample from which comparable figures are available. If the series in question do not reflect the same accounting period, then adjustments are made. In order to eliminate short-term effects of business cycles, the series are smoothed using an 2 year moving average weighting scheme (longer weighting schemes do not substantially change the results). If data are available for a country, but these reflect short-run aberrations due to exogenous shocks (such as would be the case of beef sales in a country stricken with foot and mouth disease), these observations were dropped or 'filtered' from the analysis.
Step 3. Filling in Missing Values
In some cases, data are available for countries or cities on a sporadic basis. In other cases, data may be available for only one year. From a Bayesian perspective, these observations should be given greatest weight in estimating missing years. Assuming that other factors are held constant, the missing years are extrapolated using changes and growth in aggregate national income. Based on the overriding philosophy of a long-run consumption function (defined earlier), cities which have missing data for any given year, are estimated based on historical dynamics of aggregate income for that country.
Step 4. Varying Parameter, Non-linear Estimation
Given the data available from the first three steps, the latent demand is estimated using a “varying-parameter cross-sectionally pooled time series model”. Simply stated, the effect of income on latent demand is assumed to be constant across cities unless there is empirical evidence to suggest that this effect varies (i.e., the slope of the income effect is not necessarily same for all countries). This assumption applies across cities along the aggregate consumption function, but also over time (i.e., not all cities are perceived to have the same income growth prospects over time and this effect can vary from city to city as well). Another way of looking at this is to say that latent demand for iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing is more likely to be similar across cities that have similar characteristics in terms of economic development (i.e., African cities will have similar latent demand structures controlling for the income variation across the pool of African cities).
This approach is useful across cities for which some notion of non-linearity exists in the aggregate consumption function. For some categories, however, the reader must realize that the numbers will reflect a city’s contribution to global latent demand and may never be realized in the form of local sales. For certain category combinations this will result in what at first glance will be odd results. For example, the latent demand for the category “space vehicles” will exist for cities in “Togo” even though they have no space program. The assumption is that if the economies in these countries did not exist, the world aggregate for these categories would be lower. The share attributed to these cities is based on a proportion of their income (however small) being used to consume the category in question (i.e., perhaps via resellers).
Step 5. Fixed-Parameter Linear Estimation
Nonlinearities are assumed in cases where filtered data exist along the aggregate consumption function. Because the world consists of more than 2000 cities, there will always be those cities, especially toward the bottom of the consumption function, where non-linear estimation is simply not possible. For these cities, equilibrium latent demand is assumed to be perfectly parametric and not a function of wealth (i.e., a city’s stock of income), but a function of current income (a city’s flow of income). In the long run, if a city has no current income, the latent demand for iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing is assumed to approach zero. The assumption is that wealth stocks fall rapidly to zero if flow income falls to zero (i.e., cities which earn low levels of income will not use their savings, in the long run, to demand iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing). In a graphical sense, for low income cities, latent demand approaches zero in a parametric linear fashion with a zero-zero intercept. In this stage of the estimation procedure, low-income cities are assumed to have a latent demand proportional to their income, based on the city closest to it on the aggregate consumption function.
Step 6. Aggregation and Benchmarking
Based on the models described above, latent demand figures are estimated for all cities of the world, including for the smallest economies. These are then aggregated to get world totals and regional totals. To make the numbers more meaningful, regional and global demand averages are presented. Figures are rounded, so minor inconsistencies may exist across tables.
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