Contents:

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 11 1.1 Media focus 14 1.1.1 Salmonella in British eggs 14 1.1.2 Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) 14 1.1.3 E. coli O157 14 1.1.4 Crohn’s Disease link with milk 15 1.1.5 Dioxin food contamination in Belgium 15 1.1.6 Other scares relating to food and drink 15 - Toxic cooking oil 15 - Wine 15 - Perrier water 15 - Listeria in Cheese 15 - Cola 16 CHAPTER 2 FOODBORNE DISEASE & CONTAMINATION 17 2.1 Definition 17 2.2 Considerations of foodborne disease 17 - Variability within a population 17 - Variability between countries 17 - Economic considerations 17 2.3 Consumer concerns 18 - Genetically modified foods 18 - Cloning 18 - Food irradiation 18 2.4 Causes of foodborne disease 20 2.4.1 Meatborne disease: causal agents 20 2.4.1.1 Biological agents 20 - Bacteria 21 - Viruses 21 - Prions 21 2.4.1.2 Chemical agents 21 - Industrial pollutants and agricultural chemicals 21 - Growth promoters 22 - Veterinary medicines 22 - Food additives 23 - Plastic and other compounds associated with packaging 23 Compounds derived from packaging include: 23 - PVC (polymeric vinyl chloride) 23 - Plastics 23 2.4.1.3 Needle remnants 23 2.4.2 Incidence of foodborne disease 23 2.4.3 Prevention of foodborne disease 24 2.5 Micro-organisms 25 2.6 Food spoilage 27 2.6.1 Intrinsic factors 28 2.6.1.1 Energy source 29 2.6.1.2 Water activity 29 2.6.1.3 pH requirements 30 2.6.2 Extrinsic factors 31 2.6.2.1 Relative humidity 31 2.6.2.2 Temperature 31 2.6.2.3 Freezing 32 2.6.2.4 Preservation through heating 32 - Pasteurisation 32 - Sterilization 32 - Modified atmosphere packaging 33 - Hurdle concept 33 2.7 Microbes associated with food poisoning 34 2.7.1 Foodborne infection 34 2.7.2 Foodborne intoxication 34 2.7.3 Pathogens derived from animal sources 34 2.7.3.1 Campylobacter spp. 34 2.7.3.2 Salmonellosis 35 2.7.3.3 E. coli O157 36 2.7.3.4 Yersiniosis 37 2.7.4 Brucellosis 38 2.7.4.1 Tuberculosis 39 2.7.4.2 Crohn’s Disease 40 2.7.5 Foodborne parasitic infections from animals/environment 40 2.7.5.1 Trichinellosis 40 2.7.5.2 Cysticercosis 41 2.7.5.3 Toxoplasmosis 42 2.7.5.4 Sarcocystosis 42 2.7.5.5 Q Fever 43 2.7.6 Pathogens from food handlers 43 2.7.6.1 Shigellosis 43 2.7.6.2 Staphyloenterotoxicosis 44 2.7.6.3 Viruses 44 - Noroviruses 45 - Rotaviruses 45 - Astroviruses 46 - Hepatitis A and E viruses 46 2.7.7 Environmental pathogens 46 2.7.7.1 Listeriosis 46 2.7.7.2 Bacillus cereus 47 - Emetic syndrome 47 - Diarrheic syndrome 48 2.7.7.3 Clostridium perfringens 48 2.7.7.4 Botulism 48 2.7.7.5 Aeromonas hydrophila 49 2.7.7.6 Vibrio cholerae 49 2.7.7.7 Vibrio parahaemolyticus 50 2.8 Measures to control foodborne infections 50 - from animal sources 50 - from human sources (food handlers) 50 - From environmental sources 51 2.9 Egg washing 51 2.10 Carcass washes 52 2.11 Nisin 52 CHAPTER 3 MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERIA 53 3.1 Development of microbiological criteria 53 3.2 HACCP in the Meat Industry 54 3.3 EU legislation 55 3.4 US regulations 57 3.5 Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) 58 3.6 Antimicrobial resistance 58 3.7 Growth Promoters 58 3.8 Livestock identification/tracking 59 3.8.1.1 USA 59 3.8.1.2 Australia 60 3.9 DNA Meat Traceability 60 3.9.1 DNA TraceBack 60 3.9.2 SureTRAK 61 CHAPTER 4 ANIMAL HEALTH MARKETS 63 4.1 World animal health market overview 63 4.1.1 World milk production 64 4.1.2 World meat production 65 4.2 Europe 65 4.2.1 European Consumer Perceptions on Food Risk 65 4.2.2 European Livestock 67 4.2.3 FRANCE 68 4.2.4 GERMANY 69 4.2.5 SPAIN 70 4.2.6 UK 71 4.2.6.1 Consumer confidence 72 4.3 USA 72 4.4 BRAZIL 72 4.5 AUSTRALIA 75 4.6 JAPAN 75 CHAPTER 5 SURVEILLANCE 79 5.1 Europe 79 5.1.1 Zoonoses in the EU 79 5.1.2 Foodborne disease outbreaks in the EU 80 5.1.3 Antimicrobial resistance monitoring in the EU 82 5.1.4 Notification of risk 83 5.2 USA 83 5.2.1 Incidence of foodborne disease 83 5.2.2 Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (Foodnet) 85 5.2.3 Cost of foodborne disease in USA 87 5.2.4 Melamine 88 5.2.5 Milk 89 5.2.6 Antimicrobial resistance in USA 89 5.2.6.1 National Antimicrobial Monitoring System (NARMS) 89 5.2.6.2 Retail meat surveillance 89 5.3 Mexico 93 5.4 Australia 94 5.5 Japan 95 CHAPTER 6 MAJOR FOODBORNE PATHOGENS AND THEIR CONTROL 97 6.1 Campylobacter 97 6.1.1 Campylobacter antimicrobial resistance 98 6.1.2 Research 98 6.2 Salmonella 98 6.2.1 Incidence of salmonellosis 98 6.2.2 Salmonella in food 99 6.2.3 Salmonella levels in livestock 99 6.2.3.1 Salmonella in EU broiler flocks 100 6.2.3.2 Salmonella in EU egg laying hens 100 6.2.4 Salmonella antimicrobial resistance 104 6.2.5 Antimicrobial treatment 104 6.2.6 Salmonella vaccination 104 6.2.6.1 Poultry vaccines 105 6.2.6.2 Cattle and pig vaccines 107 6.2.7 Research 109 6.3 Escherichia coli 109 6.3.1 E. coli O157 vaccines 110 6.3.2 Research 111 6.3.3 Activated lactoferrin 111 6.4 BSE 112 6.4.1 Disease incidence 112 6.4.2 National BSE risk 113 6.4.3 BSE testing 115 6.4.4 BSE research 116 CHAPTER 7 CONTACT ADDRESSES- FOOD SAFETY AUTHORITIES, EUROPE 117 7.1 EU European Food Safety Authority 117 7.1.1 Austria 117 7.1.2 Belgium 117 7.1.3 Bulgaria 117 7.1.4 Cyprus 117 7.1.5 Czech Republic 117 7.1.6 Denmark 118 7.1.7 Estonia 118 7.1.8 Finland 118 7.1.9 France 118 7.1.10 Germany 118 7.1.11 Greece 119 7.1.12 Hungary 119 7.1.13 Iceland 119 7.1.14 Ireland 119 7.1.15 Italy 119 7.1.16 Latvia 120 7.1.17 Liechtenstein 120 7.1.18 Lithuania 120 7.1.19 Luxembourg 120 7.1.20 Malta 120 7.1.21 Netherlands 121 7.1.22 Norway 121 7.1.23 Poland 121 7.1.24 Portugal 121 7.1.25 Romania 122 7.1.26 Slovakia 122 7.1.27 Slovenia 122 7.1.28 Spain 122 7.1.29 Sweden 122 7.1.30 UK 123 REFERENCES 125

Summary:

The safety of the food purchased from a supermarket or local independent supplier is a minimum expectation of the consumer. Divorced from the source of production by modern lifestyles and city living, the majority of consumers have little interest in, or understanding of, the processes involved in the transition from food production on the farm to food purchased in restaurants and shops. Most consumers in countries such as the United Kingdom, Canada and the United States are regarded as being “cash rich” but “time poor”, and this contributes to a fast-food culture with ready-meals and a diminished interest in food preparation. Although traditionally much better informed with regards to food quality, this trend is also apparent in other European countries. Most consumers would be shocked to discover that the consequences of foodborne illness or disease might be life-threatening and it is perhaps the unexpected nature of this threat to health from such a fundamental, basic component of life, that accounts for the heightened media interest associated with any food scare which might arise in the modern world. While food is generally assumed to be “safe” and therefore viewed as being uninteresting, headlines reporting instances of unsafe food are regarded as highly newsworthy and attract political attention. Adverse publicity involving food affects one of the largest industries in the world, and any association of a particular food item, source or supplier with a food safety issue is of major significance affecting global corporations, with financial implications running into millions of dollars. International trade in foodstuffs is highly regulated by governments under the auspices of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). Governments are closely involved in the imposition of tariffs and border controls, which may have the effect of protecting home production in the face of cheap imports; often at the same time as finding ways and means with which to effectively subsidise their own producers to enable export of food products at highly competitive low prices. Globalisation of the supply industries means that a disease can spread rapidly around the world. A problem originating in one region, such as South East Asia, can affect consumers elsewhere, perhaps Western Europe for example, within the time frame of a single air flight. Increased industrialisation of food production and centralisation of food supply through decreasing numbers of distributors, such as the giant supermarket chains, also means that the spread of contamination can be greater and the potential numbers of people at risk of exposure (to infection, contaminants or residues) are higher than ever before, posing very real risks to the health of large numbers of consumers if production processes are uncontrolled. This report examines the risks that may be present in the food we eat and considers the key factors in each production step involved in the preparation and distribution of food from the farm to the plate. Measures currently employed to achieve safe production are examined and new or developing technologies evaluated for their potential contribution towards minimising the inherent risks. Food safety is a vast and complex area of different factors, the interplay of which continually changes, making prediction of future problems difficult. The importance of food to the trade balance of countries is enumerated to provide context of risk of losing a market following an unforeseen accident or catastrophic occurrence. However, not only do consumers expect their food to be safe as a right, they also demand that it is cheap. Consequently the additional costs of heightened food safety measures fall as direct cost on the producer or supplier, that usually cannot be recouped through higher prices. Oddly, consumers may be prepared to pay extra for food produced in what is deemed more traditional or “old-fashioned” methods. Whilst such products are thought to be of a higher quality with better flavour and absence of additives, such as pesticides, they may not be recognisably advanced in trends of technology or aspects of safety. Indeed the premium priced organic sector, which may be perceived, possibly inaccurately, as “healthier”, is one of the few growth areas of the food sector in terms of profit margin. The report provides a concise summary of the key issues that affect the production of safe food, enabling managers with an interest in this area to quickly grasp the fundamentals of this topic. It is focused on primary production of products of animal origin, and explores the threat of existing and newly identified disease risks, and the market potential offered by control methods. In addition, the potential impact of negative publicity arising from adverse events in any sector is discussed and reference made to previous examples of foodborne disease to provide context and historical precedent. For example, analysts have estimated that the cost to Cadbury-Schweppes of their recent recall of chocolate products following the identification of potential contamination with Salmonella Montevideo as being £30 million (€44.5 million), even though no actual direct link to instances of foodborne illness has been proven, the immediate consequences of the bad publicity has been reduced profitability. Improvements in the traceability of food, from better identification of animals and farm sources, through to DNA-testing of meat products, and better labelling of the final product have a number of benefits. Improved monitoring of disease status in countries of origin and vaccination of animals and birds specifically to target foodborne pathogens should assist in the prevention of future incidents. Changes to hygiene regulations, together with improved enforcement of legislation concerning processes in abattoirs and packing plants have helped to provide a clearer understanding by producers of their responsibilities. Finally, supermarket quality standards including production facility audits and minimum animal welfare standards are all intended ultimately to improve food safety.