Table of Contents
PREFACE xvii
New to the Fifth Edition xviii
Audience and Scope xix
Organization and Structure of the Book xx
The Web Site for Ethics and Technology xxii
A Note to Students xxiii
Note to Instructors: A Roadmap for Using This Book xxiii
A Note to Computer Science Instructors xxiv
Acknowledgments xxv
FOREWORD xxvii
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Cyberethics: Concepts, Perspectives, and Methodological Frameworks 1
Scenario 1-1: Hacking into the Mobile Phones of Celebrities 1
1.1 Defining Key Terms: Cyberethics and Cybertechnology 2
1.1.1 What Is Cybertechnology? 3
1.1.2 Why the Term Cyberethics? 3
1.2 The Cyberethics Evolution: Four Developmental Phases in Cybertechnology 4
1.3 Are Cyberethics Issues Unique Ethical Issues? 7
Scenario 1-2: Developing the Code for a Computerized Weapon System 8
Scenario 1-3: Digital Piracy 8
1.3.1 Distinguishing between Unique Technological Features and Unique Ethical Issues 9
1.3.2 An Alternative Strategy for Analyzing the Debate about the Uniqueness of Cyberethics Issues 10
1.3.3 A Policy Vacuum in Duplicating Computer Software 10
1.4 Cyberethics as a Branch of Applied Ethics: Three Distinct Perspectives 12
1.4.1 Perspective #1: Cyberethics as a Field of Professional Ethics 12
1.4.2 Perspective #2: Cyberethics as a Field of Philosophical Ethics 14
1.4.3 Perspective #3: Cyberethics as a Field of Sociological/Descriptive Ethics 16
Scenario 1-4: The Impact of Technology X on the Pleasantville Community 17
1.5 A Comprehensive Cyberethics Methodology 19
1.5.1 A “Disclosive” Method for Cyberethics 19
1.5.2 An Interdisciplinary and Multilevel Method for Analyzing Cyberethics Issues 21
1.6 A Comprehensive Strategy for Approaching Cyberethics Issues 21
1.7 Chapter Summary 22
Review Questions 23
Discussion Questions 23
Scenarios for Analysis 23
Endnotes 24
References 25
Further Readings 26
Online Resources 26
CHAPTER 2
Ethical Concepts And Ethical Theories: Frameworks For Analyzing Moral Issues 27
Scenario 2-1: The Case of the “Runaway Trolley”: A Classic Moral Dilemma 27
2.1 Ethics and Morality 29
2.1.1 What Is Morality? 29
2.1.2 The Study of Morality: Three Distinct Approaches for Evaluating and Justifying the Rules Comprising a Moral System 32
2.2 Discussion Stoppers as Roadblocks to Moral Discourse 35
2.2.1 Discussion Stopper #1: People Disagree on Solutions to Moral Issues 36
2.2.2 Discussion Stopper #2: Who Am I to Judge Others? 37
2.2.3 Discussion Stopper #3: Morality Is Simply a Private Matter 39
2.2.4 Discussion Stopper #4: Morality Is Simply a Matter for Individual Cultures to Decide 40
Scenario 2-2: The Price of Defending Moral Relativism 41
2.3 Why Do We Need Ethical Theories? 43
2.4 Consequence‐Based Ethical Theories 44
2.4.1 Act Utilitarianism 46
Scenario 2-3: A Controversial Policy in Newmerica 46
2.4.2 Rule Utilitarianism 46
2.5 Duty‐Based Ethical Theories 47
2.5.1 Rule Deontology 48
Scenario 2-4: Making an Exception for Oneself 48
2.5.2 Act Deontology 49
Scenario 2-5: A Dilemma Involving Conflicting Duties 50
2.6 Contract‐Based Ethical Theories 51
2.6.1 Some Criticisms of Contract‐Based Theories 52
2.6.2 Rights‐Based Contract Theories 53
2.7 Character‐Based Ethical Theories 54
2.7.1 Being a Moral Person vs. Following Moral Rules 54
2.7.2 Acquiring the “Correct” Habits 55
2.8 Integrating Aspects of Classical Ethical Theories into a Single Comprehensive Theory 56
2.8.1 Moor’s Just‐Consequentialist Theory and Its Application to Cybertechnology 57
2.8.2 Key Elements in Moor’s Just‐Consequentialist Framework 58
2.9 Chapter Summary 59
Review Questions 59
Discussion Questions 60
Scenarios for Analysis 60
Endnotes 61
References 61
Further Readings 62
CHAPTER 3
Critical Reasoning Skills for Evaluating Disputes in Cyberethics 63
SCENARIO 3-1: Reasoning About Whether to Download Software from “Sharester” 63
3.1 What Is Critical Reasoning? 64
3.1.1 Some Basic Concepts: (Logical) Arguments and Claims 64
3.1.2 The Role of Arguments 65
3.1.3 The Basic Structure of an Argument 65
3.2 Constructing an Argument 67
3.3 Valid Arguments 68
3.4 Sound Arguments 71
3.5 Invalid Arguments 73
3.6 Inductive Arguments 74
3.7 Fallacious Arguments 75
3.8 A Seven‐Step Strategy for Evaluating Arguments 77
3.9 Identifying Some Common Fallacies 79
3.9.1 Ad Hominem Argument 79
3.9.2 Slippery Slope Argument 80
3.9.3 Fallacy of Appeal to Authority 80
3.9.4 False Cause Fallacy 81
3.9.5 Fallacy of Composition/Fallacy of Division 81
3.9.6 Fallacy of Ambiguity/Equivocation 82
3.9.7 The False Dichotomy/Either-Or Fallacy/All‐or‐Nothing Fallacy 82
3.9.8 The Virtuality Fallacy 83
3.10 Chapter Summary 84
Review Questions 84
Discussion Questions 85
Scenarios for Analysis 85
Endnotes 85
References 86
Further Readings 86
CHAPTER 4
Professional Ethics, Codes of Conduct, and Moral Responsibility 87
Scenario 4-1: Fatalities Involving the Oerlikon GDF‐005 Robotic Cannon 87
4.1 What Is Professional Ethics? 88
4.1.1 What Is a Profession? 89
4.1.2 Who Is a Professional? 89
4.1.3 Who Is a Computer/IT Professional? 90
4.2 Do Computer/IT Professionals Have Any Special Moral Responsibilities? 90
4.3 Professional Codes of Ethics and Codes of Conduct 91
4.3.1 The Purpose of Professional Codes 92
4.3.2 Some Criticisms of Professional Codes 93
4.3.3 Defending Professional Codes 94
4.3.4 The IEEE‐CS/ACM Software Engineering Code of Ethics and Professional Practice 95
4.4 Conflicts of Professional Responsibility: Employee Loyalty and Whistle‐Blowing 97
4.4.1 Do Employees Have an Obligation of Loyalty to Employers? 97
4.4.2 Whistle‐Blowing 98
Scenario 4-2: NSA Surveillance and the Case of Edward Snowden 101
4.5 Moral Responsibility, Legal Liability, and Accountability 103
4.5.1 Distinguishing Responsibility from Liability and Accountability 104
4.5.2 Accountability and the Problem of “Many Hands” 105
Scenario 4-3: The Case of the Therac‐25 Machine 105
4.5.3 Legal Liability and Moral Accountability 106
4.6 Do Some Computer Corporations Have Special Moral Obligations? 107
4.7 Chapter Summary 108
Review Questions 109
Discussion Questions 109
Scenarios for Analysis 110
Endnotes 110
References 111
Further Readings 112
CHAPTER 5
Privacy and Cyberspace 113
Scenario 5-1: A New NSA Data Center 113
5.1 Privacy in the Digital Age: Who Is Affected and Why Should We Worry? 114
5.1.1 Whose Privacy Is Threatened by Cybertechnology? 115
5.1.2 Are Any Privacy Concerns Generated by Cybertechnology Unique or Special? 115
5.2 What Is Personal Privacy? 117
5.2.1 Accessibility Privacy: Freedom from Unwarranted Intrusion 118
5.2.2 Decisional Privacy: Freedom from Interference in One’s Personal Affairs 118
5.2.3 Informational Privacy: Control over the Flow of Personal Information 118
5.2.4 A Comprehensive Account of Privacy 119
Scenario 5-2: Descriptive Privacy 119
Scenario 5-3: Normative Privacy 120
5.2.5 Privacy as “Contextual Integrity” 120
Scenario 5-4: Preserving Contextual Integrity in a University Seminar 121
5.3 Why Is Privacy Important? 121
5.3.1 Is Privacy an Intrinsic Value? 122
5.3.2 Privacy as a Social Value 123
5.4 Gathering Personal Data: Surveillance, Recording, and Tracking Techniques 123
5.4.1 “Dataveillance” Techniques 124
5.4.2 Internet Cookies 124
5.4.3 RFID Technology 125
5.4.4 Cybertechnology and Government Surveillance 126
5.5 Analyzing Personal Data: Big Data, Data Mining, and Web Mining 127
5.5.1 Big Data: What, Exactly, Is It, and Why Does It Threaten Privacy? 128
5.5.2 Data Mining and Personal Privacy 128
Scenario 5-5: Data Mining at the XYZ Credit Union 129
5.5.3 Web Mining: Analyzing Personal Data Acquired from Our Interactions Online 132
5.6 Protecting Personal Privacy in Public Space 132
5.6.1 PPI vs. NPI 133
Scenario 5-6: Shopping at SuperMart 133
Scenario 5-7: Shopping at Nile.com 134
5.6.2 Search Engines and the Disclosure of Personal Information 135
5.7 Privacy Legislation and Industry Self‐Regulation 137
5.7.1 Industry Self‐Regulation and Privacy‐Enhancing Tools 137
5.7.2 Privacy Laws and Data Protection Principles 139
5.8 A Right to “Be Forgotten” (or to “Erasure”) in the Digital Age 140
Scenario 5-8: An Arrest for an Underage Drinking Incident 20 Years Ago 141
5.8.1 Arguments Opposing RTBF 142
5.8.2 Arguments Defending RTBF 143
5.8.3 Establishing “Appropriate” Criteria 144
5.9 Chapter Summary 146
Review Questions 146
Discussion Questions 147
Scenarios for Analysis 148
Endnotes 148
References 149
Further Readings 150
CHAPTER 6
Security in Cyberspace 151
Scenario 6-1: The “Olympic Games” Operation and the Stuxnet Worm 151
6.1 Security in the Context of Cybertechnology 152
6.1.1 Cybersecurity as Related to Cybercrime 153
6.1.2 Security and Privacy: Some Similarities and Some Differences 153
6.2 Three Categories of Cybersecurity 154
6.2.1 Data Security: Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability of Information 155
6.2.2 System Security: Viruses, Worms, and Malware 156
6.2.3 Network Security: Protecting our Infrastructure 156
Scenario 6-2: The “GhostNet” Controversy 157
6.3 Cloud Computing and Security 158
6.3.1 Deployment and Service/Delivery Models for the Cloud 158
6.3.2 Securing User Data Residing in the Cloud 159
6.3.3 Assessing Risk in the Cloud and in the Context of Cybersecurity 160
6.4 Hacking and “The Hacker Ethic” 160
6.4.1 What Is “The Hacker Ethic”? 161
6.4.2 Are Computer Break‐ins Ever Ethically Justifiable? 163
6.5 Cyberterrorism 164
6.5.1 Cyberterrorism vs. Hacktivism 165
Scenario 6-3: Anonymous and the “Operation Payback” Attack 166
6.5.2 Cybertechnology and Terrorist Organizations 167
6.6 Information Warfare (IW) 167
6.6.1 Information Warfare vs. Conventional Warfare 167
6.6.2 Potential Consequences for Nations that Engage in IW 168
6.7 Chapter Summary 170
Review Questions 170
Discussion Questions 171
Scenarios for Analysis 171
Endnotes 171
References 172
Further Readings 174
CHAPTER 7
Cybercrime and Cyber‐Related Crimes 175
Scenario 7-1: Creating a Fake Facebook Account to Catch Criminals 175
7.1 Cybercrimes and Cybercriminals 177
7.1.1 Background Events: A Brief Sketch 177
7.1.2 A Typical Cybercriminal 178
7.2 Hacking, Cracking, and Counter Hacking 178
7.2.1 Hacking vs. Cracking 179
7.2.2 Active Defense Hacking: Can Acts of “Hacking Back” or Counter Hacking Ever Be Morally Justified? 179
7.3 Defining Cybercrime 180
7.3.1 Determining the Criteria 181
7.3.2 A Preliminary Definition of Cybercrime 181
7.3.3 Framing a Coherent and Comprehensive Definition of Cybercrime 182
7.4 Three Categories of Cybercrime: Piracy, Trespass, and Vandalism in Cyberspace 183
7.5 Cyber‐Related Crimes 184
7.5.1 Some Examples of Cyber‐Exacerbated vs. Cyber‐Assisted Crimes 184
7.5.2 Identity Theft 185
7.6 Technologies and Tools for Combating Cybercrime 187
7.6.1 Biometric Technologies 187
7.6.2 Keystroke‐Monitoring Software and Packet‐Sniffing Programs 188
7.7 Programs and Techniques Designed to Combat Cybercrime in the United States 189
7.7.1 Entrapment and “Sting” Operations to Catch Internet Pedophiles 189
Scenario 7-2: Entrapment on the Internet 189
7.7.2 Enhanced Government Surveillance Techniques and the Patriot Act 189
7.8 National and International Laws to Combat Cybercrime 190
7.8.1 The Problem of Jurisdiction in Cyberspace 190
Scenario 7-3: A Virtual Casino 191
Scenario 7-4: Prosecuting a Computer Corporation in Multiple Countries 192
7.8.2 Some International Laws and Conventions Affecting Cybercrime 192
Scenario 7-5: The Pirate Bay Web Site 193
7.9 Cybercrime and the Free Press: The Wikileaks Controversy 193
7.9.1 Are WikiLeaks’ Practices Ethical? 194
7.9.2 Are WikiLeaks’ Practices Criminal? 194
7.9.3 WikiLeaks and the Free Press 195
7.10 Chapter Summary 196
Review Questions 197
Discussion Questions 197
Scenarios for Analysis 198
Endnotes 199
References 199
Further Readings 200
CHAPTER 8
Intellectual Property Disputes in Cyberspace 201
Scenario 8-1: Streaming Music Online 201
8.1 What Is Intellectual Property? 202
8.1.1 Intellectual Objects 203
8.1.2 Why Protect Intellectual Objects? 203
8.1.3 Software as Intellectual Property 204
8.1.4 Evaluating a Popular Argument Used by the Software Industry to Show Why It Is Morally Wrong to Copy Proprietary Software 205
8.2 Copyright Law and Digital Media 206
8.2.1 The Evolution of Copyright Law in the United States 206
8.2.2 The Fair‐Use and First‐Sale Provisions of Copyright Law 207
8.2.3 Software Piracy as Copyright Infringement 208
8.2.4 Napster and the Ongoing Battles over Sharing Digital Music 209
8.3 Patents, Trademarks, and Trade Secrets 212
8.3.1 Patent Protections 212
8.3.2 Trademarks 213
8.3.3 Trade Secrets 214
8.4 Jurisdictional Issues Involving Intellectual Property Laws 214
8.5 Philosophical Foundations for Intellectual Property Rights 215
8.5.1 The Labor Theory of Property 215
Scenario 8-2: DEF Corporation vs. XYZ Inc. 216
8.5.2 The Utilitarian Theory of Property 216
Scenario 8-3: Sam’s e‐Book Reader Add‐on Device 217
8.5.3 The Personality Theory of Property 217
Scenario 8-4: Angela’s B++ Programming Tool 218
8.6 The “Free Software” and “Open Source” Movements 219
8.6.1 GNU and the Free Software Foundation 219
8.6.2 The “Open Source Software” Movement: OSS vs. FSF 220
8.7 The “Common Good” Approach: An Alternative Framework for Analyzing the Intellectual Property Debate 221
8.7.1 Information Wants to be Shared vs. Information Wants to be Free 223
8.7.2 Preserving the Information Commons 225
8.7.3 The Fate of the Information Commons: Could the Public Domain of Ideas Eventually Disappear? 226
8.7.4 The Creative Commons 227
8.8 Pipa, Sopa, and Rwa Legislation: Current Battlegrounds in the Intellectual Property War 228
8.8.1 The PIPA and SOPA Battles 228
8.8.2 RWA and Public Access to Health‐Related Information 229
Scenario 8-5: Elsevier Press and “The Cost of Knowledge” Boycott 229
8.8.3 Intellectual Property Battles in the Near Future 231
8.9 Chapter Summary 231
Review Questions 231
Discussion Questions 232
Scenarios for Analysis 232
Endnotes 233
References 234
Further Readings 235
CHAPTER 9
Regulating Commerce and Speech in Cyberspace 236
Scenario 9-1: Anonymous and the Ku Klux Klan 236
9.1 Introduction and Background Issues: Some Key Questions and Critical Distinctions Affecting Internet Regulation 237
9.1.1 Is Cyberspace a Medium or a Place? 238
9.1.2 Two Categories of Cyberspace Regulation: Regulating Content and Regulating Process 239
9.1.3 Four Modes of Regulation: The Lessig Model 240
9.2 Digital Rights Management (Drm) 242
9.2.1 Some Implications of DRM for Public Policy Debates Affecting Copyright Law 242
9.2.2 DRM and the Music Industry 243
Scenario 9-2: The Sony Rootkit Controversy 243
9.3 E‐Mail Spam 244
9.3.1 Defining Spam 244
9.3.2 Why Is Spam Morally Objectionable? 245
9.4 Free Speech vs. Censorship and Content Control in Cyberspace 246
9.4.1 Protecting Free Speech 247
9.4.2 Defining Censorship 247
9.5 Pornography in Cyberspace 248
9.5.1 Interpreting “Community Standards” in Cyberspace 248
9.5.2 Internet Pornography Laws and Protecting Children Online 249
9.5.3 Virtual Child Pornography 250
9.5.4 Sexting and Its Implications for Current Child Pornography Laws 252
Scenario 9-3: A Sexting Incident Involving Greensburg Salem High School 252
9.6 Hate Speech and Speech that Can Cause Physical Harm to Others 254
9.6.1 Hate Speech on the Web 254
9.6.2 Online “Speech” that Can Cause Physical Harm to Others 255
9.7 “Network Neutrality” and the Future of Internet Regulation 256
9.7.1 Defining Network Neutrality 256
9.7.2 Some Arguments Advanced by Net Neutrality’s Proponents and Opponents 257
9.7.3 Future Implications for the Net Neutrality Debate 257
9.8 Chapter Summary 258
Review Questions 259
Discussion Questions 259
Scenarios for Analysis 260
Endnotes 260
References 261
Further Readings 262
CHAPTER 10
The Digital Divide, Democracy, and Work 263
Scenario 10-1: Digital Devices, Social Media, Democracy, and the “Arab Spring” 264
10.1 The Digital Divide 265
10.1.1 The Global Digital Divide 265
10.1.2 The Digital Divide within Nations 266
Scenario 10-2: Providing In‐Home Internet Service for Public School Students 267
10.1.3 Is the Digital Divide an Ethical Issue? 268
10.2 Cybertechnology and the Disabled 270
10.3 Cybertechnology and Race 271
10.3.1 Internet Usage Patterns 272
10.3.2 Racism and the Internet 272
10.4 Cybertechnology and Gender 273
10.4.1 Access to High‐Technology Jobs 274
10.4.2 Gender Bias in Software Design and Video Games 275
10.5 Cybertechnology, Democracy, and Demotratic Ideals 276
10.5.1 Has Cybertechnology Enhanced or Threatened Democracy? 276
10.5.2 How has Cybertechnology Affected Political Elections in Democratic Nations? 279
10.6 The Transformation and the Quality of Work 280
10.6.1 Job Displacement and the Transformed Workplace 281
10.6.2 The Quality of Work Life in the Digital Era 283
Scenario 10-3: Employee Monitoring and the Case of Ontario vs. Quon 284
10.7 Chapter Summary 287
Review Questions 287
Discussion Questions 288
Scenarios for Analysis 288
Endnotes 289
References 289
Further Readings 291
CHAPTER 11
Online Communities, Virtual Reality, and Artificial Intelligence 292
Scenario 11-1: Ralph’s Online Friends and Artificial Companions 292
11.1 Online Communities and Social Networking Services 293
11.1.1 Online Communities vs. Traditional Communities 294
11.1.2 Blogs and Some Controversial Aspects of the Bogosphere 295
Scenario 11-2: “The Washingtonienne” Blogger 295
11.1.3 Some Pros and Cons of SNSs (and Other Online Communities) 296
Scenario 11-3: A Suicide Resulting from Deception on MySpace 298
11.2 Virtual Environments and Virtual Reality 299
11.2.1 What Is Virtual Reality (VR)? 300
11.2.2 Ethical Aspects of VR Applications 301
11.3 Artificial Intelligence (AI) 305
11.3.1 What Is AI? A Brief Overview 305
11.3.2 The Turing Test and John Searle’s “Chinese Room” Argument 306
11.3.3 Cyborgs and Human-Machine Relationships 307
11.4 Extending Moral Consideration to AI Entities 310
Scenario 11-4: Artificial Children 310
11.4.1 Determining Which Kinds of Beings/Entities Deserve Moral Consideration 310
11.4.2 Moral Patients vs. Moral Agents 311
11.5 Chapter Summary 312
Review Questions 313
Discussion Questions 313
Scenarios for Analysis 313
Endnotes 314
References 315
Further Readings 316
CHAPTER 12
Ethical Aspects of Emerging and Converging Technologies 317
Scenario 12-1: When “Things” Communicate with One Another 317
12.1 Converging Technologies and Technological Convergence 318
12.2 Ambient Intelligence (AmI) and Ubiquitous Computing 319
12.2.1 Pervasive Computing, Ubiquitous Communication, and Intelligent User Interfaces 320
12.2.2 Ethical and Social Aspects of AmI 321
Scenario 12-2: E. M. Forster’s “(Pre)Cautionary Tale” 322
Scenario 12-3: Jeremy Bentham’s “Panopticon/Inspection House” (Thought Experiment) 323
12.3 Nanotechnology and Nanocomputing 324
12.3.1 Nanotechnology: A Brief Overview 324
12.3.2 Ethical Issues in Nanotechnology and Nanocomputing 326
12.4 Autonomous Machines 329
12.4.1 What Is an AM? 329
12.4.2 Some Ethical and Philosophical Questions Pertaining to AMs 332
12.5 Machine Ethics and Moral Machines 336
12.5.1 What Is Machine Ethics? 336
12.5.2 Designing Moral Machines 337
12.6 A “Dynamic” Ethical Framework for Guiding Research in New and Emerging Technologies 340
12.6.1 Is an ELSI‐Like Model Adequate for New/Emerging Technologies? 340
12.6.2 A “Dynamic Ethics” Model 341
12.7 Chapter Summary 341
Review Questions 342
Discussion Questions 342
Scenarios for Analysis 343
Endnotes 343
References 344
Further Readings 346
GLOSSARY 347
INDEX 353
