The leading resource for anyone looking for an accessible and authoritative introduction to nuclear and radiochemistry
In the newly revised Fourth Edition of Nuclear and Radiochemistry: Fundamentals and Applications, distinguished chemist Jens-Volker Kratz delivers a two-volume handbook that has become the gold standard in teaching and learning nuclear and radiochemistry. The books cover the theory and fundamentals of the subject before moving on the technical side of nuclear chemistry, with coverage of nuclear energy, nuclear reactors, and radionuclides in the life sciences.
This latest edition discusses the details and impact of the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear disasters, as well as new research facilities, including FAIR and HIM. It also incorporates new methods for target preparation and new processes for nuclear fuel recycling, like EURO-GANEX. Finally, the volumes extensively cover environmental technological advances and the effects of radioactivity on the environment.
Readers will also find: - An accessible and thorough introduction to the fundamental concepts of nuclear physics and chemistry, including atomic processes, classical mechanics, relativistic mechanics, and the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle - Comprehensive explorations of radioactivity in nature, radioelements, radioisotopes and their atomic masses, and other physical properties of nuclei - Practical discussions of the nuclear force, nuclear structure, decay modes, radioactive decay kinetics, and nuclear radiation - In-depth examinations of the statistical considerations relevant to radioactivity measurements
Written for practicing nuclear chemists and atomic physicists, Nuclear and Radiochemistry: Fundamentals and Applications is also an indispensable resource for nuclear physicians, power engineers, and professionals working in the nuclear industry.
Table of Contents
Volume 1
Preface vii
1 Fundamental Concepts 1
1.1 The Atom 1
1.2 Atomic Processes 2
1.3 Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus 4
1.4 Nuclear Decay Types 6
1.5 Some Physical Concepts Needed in Nuclear Chemistry 10
1.5.1 Fundamental Forces 10
1.5.2 Elements from Classical Mechanics 11
1.5.3 Relativistic Mechanics 11
1.5.4 The de Broglie Wavelength 13
1.5.5 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 14
1.5.6 The Standard Model of Particle Physics 15
1.5.7 Force Carriers 19
Reference 20
Further Reading 21
2 Radioactivity in Nature 23
2.1 Discovery of Radioactivity 23
2.2 Radioactive Substances in Nature 26
2.3 Nuclear Forensics 30
References 33
Further Reading 33
3 Radioelements and Radioisotopes and Their Atomic Masses 35
3.1 Periodic Table of the Elements 35
3.2 Isotopes and the Chart of Nuclides 36
3.3 Nuclide Masses and Binding Energies 40
3.4 Evidence for Shell Structure in Nuclei 48
3.5 Precision Mass Spectrometry 51
References 56
Further Reading 56
4 Other Physical Properties of Nuclei 59
4.1 Nuclear Radii 59
4.2 Nuclear Angular Momenta 64
4.3 Magnetic Dipole Moments 66
4.4 Electric Quadrupole Moments 69
4.5 Statistics and Parity 70
4.6 Excited States 71
References 72
Further Reading 72
5 The Nuclear Force and Nuclear Structure 75
5.1 Nuclear Forces 75
5.2 Charge Independence and Isospin 78
5.3 Nuclear Matter 82
5.4 Fermi Gas Model 84
5.5 Shell Model 86
5.6 Collective Motion in Nuclei 95
5.7 Nilsson Model 100
5.8 The Pairing Force and Quasi-Particles 104
5.9 Macroscopic-Microscopic Model 106
5.10 Interacting Boson Approximation 108
5.11 Further Collective Excitations: Coulomb Excitation, High-Spin States, Giant Resonances 110
References 116
Further Reading 116
6 Decay Modes 119
6.1 Nuclear Instability and Nuclear Spectroscopy 119
6.2 Alpha Decay 119
6.2.1 Hindrance Factors 124
6.2.2 Alpha-Decay Energies 125
6.3 Cluster Radioactivity 127
6.4 Proton Radioactivity 129
6.5 Spontaneous Fission 132
6.6 Beta Decay 146
6.6.1 Fundamental Processes 146
6.6.2 Electron Capture-to-Positron Ratios 156
6.6.3 Nuclear Matrix Elements 157
6.6.4 Parity Non-Conservation 160
6.6.5 Massive Vector Bosons 162
6.6.6 Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa Matrix 163
6.7 Electromagnetic Transitions 168
6.7.1 Multipole Order and Selection Rules 169
6.7.2 Transition Probabilities 171
6.7.3 Internal Conversion Coefficients 176
6.7.4 Angular Correlations 180
References 183
Further Reading 184
7 Radioactive Decay Kinetics 187
7.1 Law and Energy of Radioactive Decay 187
7.2 Radioactive Equilibria 189
7.3 Secular Radioactive Equilibrium 191
7.4 Transient Radioactive Equilibrium 193
7.5 Half-Life of Mother Nuclide Shorter than Half-Life of Daughter Nuclide 194
7.6 Similar Half-Lives 194
7.7 Branching Decay 196
7.8 Successive Transformations 197
Reference 199
Further Reading 199
8 Nuclear Radiation 201
8.1 General Properties 201
8.2 Heavy Charged Particles (A ≥1) 203
8.3 Beta Radiation 210
8.4 Gamma Radiation 215
8.5 Neutrons 221
8.6 Short-Lived Elementary Particles in Atoms and Molecules 226
References 228
Further Reading 228
9 Measurement of Nuclear Radiation 231
9.1 Activity and Counting Rate 231
9.2 Gas-Filled Detectors 235
9.2.1 Ionization Chambers 238
9.2.2 Proportional Counters 239
9.2.3 Geiger-Müller Counters 241
9.3 Scintillation Detectors 242
9.4 Semiconductor Detectors 245
9.5 Choice of Detectors 251
9.6 Spectrometry 253
9.7 Determination of Absolute Disintegration Rates 255
9.8 Use of Coincidence and Anticoincidence Circuits 258
9.9 Low-Level Counting 258
9.10 Neutron Detection and Measurement 259
9.11 Track Detectors 260
9.11.1 Photographic Emulsions and Autoradiography 260
9.11.2 Dielectric Track Detectors 262
9.11.3 Cloud Chambers 263
9.11.4 Bubble Chambers 263
9.11.5 Spark Chambers 263
9.12 Detectors Used in Health Physics 263
9.12.1 Portable Counters and Survey Meters 264
9.12.2 Film Badges 264
9.12.3 Pocket Ion Chambers 264
9.12.4 Thermoluminescence Dosimeters 264
9.12.5 Contamination Monitors 265
9.12.6 Whole-Body Counters 265
Reference 265
Further Reading 265
10 Statistical Considerations in Radioactivity Measurements 269
10.1 Distribution of Random Variables 269
10.2 Probability and Probability Distributions 271
10.3 Maximum Likelihood 277
10.4 Experimental Applications 278
10.5 Statistics of Pulse-Height Distributions 280
10.6 Statistical Assessments of Lifetimes in α-Decay Chains of Odd-Z Heavy Elements 282
10.7 Setting Upper Limits when no Counts Are Observed 285
References 285
Further Reading 285
11 Techniques in Nuclear Chemistry 287
11.1 Special Aspects of the Chemistry of Radionuclides 287
11.1.1 Short-Lived Radionuclides and the Role of Carriers 287
11.1.2 Radionuclides of High Specific Activity 289
11.1.3 Microamounts of Radioactive Substances 290
11.1.4 Radiocolloids 294
11.1.5 Tracer Techniques 297
11.2 Target Preparation 298
11.3 Measuring Beam Intensity and Fluxes 304
11.4 Neutron Spectrum in Nuclear Reactors 306
11.4.1 Thermal Neutrons 306
11.4.2 Epithermal Neutrons and Resonances 308
11.4.3 Reaction Rates in Thermal Reactors 309
11.5 Production of Radionuclides 309
11.5.1 Production in Nuclear Reactors 309
11.5.2 Production by Accelerators 314
11.5.3 Separation Techniques 322
11.5.4 Radionuclide Generators 326
11.6 Use of Recoil Momenta 329
11.7 Preparation of Samples for Activity Measurements 337
11.8 Determination of Half-Lives 338
11.9 Decay-Scheme Studies 340
11.10 In-Beam Nuclear Reaction Studies 342
References 356
Further Reading 357
Volume 2
Preface ix
12 Nuclear Reactions 361
12.1 Collision Kinematics 362
12.2 Coulomb Trajectories 364
12.3 Cross Sections 367
12.4 Elastic Scattering 371
12.5 Elastic Scattering and Reaction Cross Section 378
12.6 Optical Model 381
12.7 Nuclear Reactions and Models 383
12.7.1 Investigation of Nuclear Reactions 384
12.7.2 Compound Nucleus Model 384
12.7.3 Precompound Decay 400
12.7.4 Direct Reactions 401
12.7.5 Photonuclear Reactions 403
12.7.6 Fission 404
12.7.7 High-Energy Reactions 414
12.8 Nuclear Reactions Revisited with Heavy Ions 419
12.8.1 Heavy-Ion Fusion Reactions 420
12.8.2 Quasi-Fission 429
12.8.3 Deep Inelastic Collisions 435
12.8.3.1 The 238U+238U Reaction 447
12.8.3.2 Isotope Distributions at Fixed Z Below Z =92 449
12.8.3.3 Bombarding-Energy Dependence of the Deep-Inelastic Collisions 451
12.8.3.4 Isotope Distributions at Fixed Z Above Z =92 454
12.8.3.5 The 238U + 248Cm Reaction 459
12.8.3.6 Comparison of the Element Yields with Diffusion-Model Predictions 461
12.8.4 “Simple” (Quasi-elastic) Reactions at the Barrier 464
12.8.5 “Complex” Transfer Reactions 469
12.8.6 Relativistic Heavy-Ion Collisions, the Phases of Nuclear Matter 475
References 480
Further Reading 484
13 Chemical Effects of Nuclear Transmutations 489
13.1 General Aspects 489
13.2 Recoil Effects 490
13.3 Excitation Effects 495
13.4 Gases and Liquids 499
13.5 Solids 502
13.6 Szilard-Chalmers Reactions 506
13.7 Recoil Labeling and Self-labeling 506
References 508
Further Reading 509
14 Influence of Chemical Bonding on Nuclear Properties 511
14.1 Survey 511
14.2 Dependence of Half-Lives on Chemical Bonding 512
14.3 Dependence of Radiation Emission on the Chemical Environment 514
14.4 Mössbauer Spectrometry 522
References 527
Further Reading 528
15 Nuclear Energy, Nuclear Reactors, Nuclear Fuel, and Fuel Cycles 531
15.1 Energy Production by Nuclear Fission 531
15.2 Nuclear Fuel and Fuel Cycles 536
15.3 Production of Uranium and Uranium Compounds 541
15.4 Fuel Elements 544
15.5 Nuclear Reactors, Moderators, and Coolants 547
15.6 The Chernobyl and Fukushima Accidents 554
15.7 Reprocessing 561
15.8 RadioactiveWaste 567
15.9 The Natural Reactors at Oklo 576
15.10 Controlled Thermonuclear Reactors 577
15.11 Nuclear Explosives 579
References 580
Further Reading 581
16 Sources of Nuclear Bombarding Particles 585
16.1 Neutron Sources 585
16.2 Neutron Generators 586
16.3 Research Reactors 587
16.4 Charged-Particle Accelerators 589
16.4.1 Direct Voltage Accelerators 591
16.4.2 Linear Accelerators 594
16.4.3 Cyclotrons 596
16.4.4 Synchrocyclotrons, Synchrotrons 598
16.4.5 Radioactive Ion Beams 601
16.4.5.1 FAIR - The Universe in the Lab 601
16.4.5.2 Research at FAIR 602
16.4.5.3 Construction of FAIR 604
16.4.5.4 International Partners 604
16.4.5.5 High Tech for FAIR 604
16.4.6 Photon Sources 605
References 606
Further Reading 606
17 Radioelements 609
17.1 Natural and Artificial Radioelements 609
17.2 Technetium and Promethium 613
17.3 Production of Transuranic Elements 616
17.3.1 Hot-Fusion Reactions 622
17.3.2 Cold-Fusion Reactions 625
17.3.3 48Ca-Induced Fusion Reactions 632
17.3.4 Other Disciplines 638
17.4 Cross Sections 640
17.5 Nuclear Structure of Superheavy Elements 645
17.6 Spectroscopy of Actinides and Transactinides 649
17.7 Properties of the Actinides 652
17.8 Chemical Properties of the Transactinides 667
17.8.1 Prediction of Electron Configurations and the Architecture of the Periodic Table of the Elements 668
17.8.2 Methods to Investigate the Chemistry of the Transactinides 670
17.8.3 Selected Experimental Results 690
References 721
Further Reading 727
18 Radionuclides in Geo- and Cosmochemistry 735
18.1 Natural Abundances of the Elements and Isotope Variations 735
18.2 General Aspects of Cosmochemistry 738
18.3 Early Stages of the Universe 738
18.4 Synthesis of the Elements in the Stars 741
18.4.1 Evolution of Stars 741
18.4.2 Evolution of the Earth 743
18.4.3 Thermonuclear Reaction Rates 744
18.4.4 Hydrogen Burning 746
18.4.5 Helium Burning 747
18.4.6 Synthesis of Nuclei with A < 60 748
18.4.7 Synthesis of Nuclei with A >60 748
18.4.7.1 The s- (Slow) Process 749
18.4.7.2 The r (Rapid) Process 749
18.4.7.3 The p (Proton) Process 753
18.5 The Solar Neutrino Problem 754
18.6 Absolute Neutrino Masses 762
18.6.1 m(νμ) from Pion Decay 763
18.6.2 m(ντ) from Tau Decay 763
18.6.3 m(νe) from Nuclear β-Decay 764
18.6.4 The Karlsruhe Tritium Experiment on the Neutrino Mass KATRIN 764
18.7 Interstellar Matter and Cosmic Radiation 765
18.7.1 Interstellar Matter 765
18.7.2 Cosmic Radiation 767
18.7.3 Radionuclides from Cosmic Rays 767
18.7.4 Cosmic-Ray Effects in Meteorites 768
18.7.5 Abundance of Li, Be, and B 769
References 769
Further Reading 770
19 Dating by Nuclear Methods 775
19.1 General Aspect 775
19.2 Cosmogenic Radionuclides 776
19.3 Terrestrial Mother/Daughter Nuclide Pairs 781
19.4 Natural Decay Series 783
19.5 Ratios of Stable Isotopes 786
19.6 Radioactive Disequilibria 788
19.7 Fission Tracks 788
References 789
Further Reading 790
20 Radioanalysis 793
20.1 General Aspects 793
20.2 Analysis on the Basis of Inherent Radioactivity 794
20.3 Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) 796
20.4 Activation by Charged Particles 800
20.5 Activation by Photons 800
20.6 Special Features of Activation Analysis 802
20.7 Isotope Dilution Analysis 805
20.8 Radiometric Methods 807
20.9 Other Analytical Applications of Radiotracers 808
20.10 Absorption and Scattering of Radiation 809
20.11 Radionuclides as Radiation Sources in X-ray Fluorescence Analysis (XFA) 810
20.12 Analysis with Ion Beams 811
20.13 Radioisotope Mass Spectrometry 815
20.13.1 Resonance Ionization Mass Spectrometry (RIMS) 815
20.13.2 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) 820
20.13.3 Measurements of Ionization Potentials 824
References 830
Further Reading 832
21 Radionuclides in the Life Sciences 837
21.1 Survey 837
21.2 Application in Ecological Studies 838
21.3 Radioanalysis in the Life Sciences 838
21.4 Application in Physiological and Metabolic Studies 840
21.5 Radionuclides Used in Nuclear Medicine 841
21.6 Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) 843
21.7 Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 844
21.8 Labeled Compounds 844
References 850
Further Reading 851
22 Radionuclides in the Geosphere and the Biosphere 855
22.1 Sources of Radioactivity 855
22.2 Mobility of Radionuclides in the Geosphere 858
22.3 Reactions of Radionuclides with the Components of NaturalWaters 861
22.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere 865
22.5 Radionuclides in the Biosphere 873
22.6 Speciation Techniques with Relevance for Nuclear Safeguards, Verification, and Applications 878
22.6.1 Redox Reactions, Hydrolysis, and Colloid Formation of Pu(IV) 883
22.6.2 Investigation of the Homologs Th(IV) and Zr(IV) 888
22.6.3 Time-Resolved Laser-Induced Fluorescence 895
22.7 Conclusions 899
References 900
Further Reading 902
23 Dosimetry and Radiation Protection 909
23.1 Dosimetry 909
23.2 External Radiation Sources 911
23.3 Internal Radiation Sources 912
23.4 Radiation Effects in Cell 915
23.4.1 BNCT 916
23.5 Radiation Effects in Humans, Animals, and Plants 921
23.6 Non-occupational Radiation Exposure 925
23.7 Safety Recommendations 925
23.8 Safety Regulations 928
23.9 Monitoring of the Environment 932
23.10 Geological Disposal of RadioactiveWaste 933
References 936
Further Reading 937
Index 941
