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Handbook of Natural Colorants. Edition No. 2. Wiley Series in Renewable Resource

  • Book

  • 688 Pages
  • May 2023
  • John Wiley and Sons Ltd
  • ID: 5841165
Handbook of Natural Colorants
Second Edition

A detailed survey of a variety of natural colorants and their different applications including textiles, polymers, and cosmetics

Colorants describe a wide range of materials such as dyes, pigments, inks, paint, or chemicals, which are used in small quantities but play an important role in many products such as textiles, polymers, food, and cosmetics. As the effects of climate change begin to be felt, there has been a shift in focus in the field to renewable resources and sustainability, and an interest in the replacement of oil-based products with greener substitutions. As the push to adopt natural resources grows, there have been significant developments in the research and application of natural colorants as a step in the transition to a bio-based economy.

The second edition of Handbook of Natural Colorants provides a detailed introduction to natural colorants in a marriage of theory and practice, from seed of plant to consumer demand. Presenting a wide range of viewpoints, the book briefly discusses the history of coloration technology and the current position of natural colorants before highlighting detailed information on regional plant source availability, colorant production and properties, as well as analytical methods for isolation, identification, and toxicity aspects. It also presents key applications in technical use and consumer products, including the use of natural colorants in textiles, hair dyeing, printing, and packaging. Finally, the text considers environmental and economic aspects of natural colorants.

Handbook of Natural Colorants is a useful reference for dyers, textile producers, and researchers in the evolving field of sustainable chemistry, environmental sciences, agricultural sciences, and polymer sciences.

Table of Contents

List of Contributors xxi

Series Preface xxv

Preface xxvii

I Historical Development 1

1 History of Natural Dyes in the Ancient Mediterranean Civilization 3
Maria J. Melo

1.1 Introduction 3

1.1.1 Ancient Mediterranean World 3

1.1.2 Dyes from Antiquity 4

1.1.3 Unveiling the Secrets of Ancient Dyes with Modern Science 7

1.2 Ancient Reds 7

1.2.1 Anthraquinone Reds 7

1.2.2 Redwoods 10

1.2.3 Flavylium/Anthocyanin Reds 12

1.2.3.1 Equilibria in solution 13

1.3 Ancient Blues 14

1.3.1 Indigo Blues 14

1.3.2 Anthocyanin Blues 15

1.4 Ancient Purples 16

1.4.1 Tyrian Purple: Real Purple from Sea Snails 16

1.4.2 Orchil Purples 18

1.4.3 Folium 18

1.5 Ancient Yellows 20

1.5.1 Flavonoid Yellows 20

1.5.2 Carotenoid Yellows 21

1.5.3 Chalcone and Aurone Yellows 22

Acknowledgements 22

References 22

2 Colors in Civilizations of the World and Natural Colorants: History under Tension 27
Dominique Cardon

2.1 Introduction 27

2.2 The Triumph of Mauveine: Synthetic Fulfillment of the Antique Purplemania 28

2.3 Blue: From Kingly Regional to Globally Democratic 29

2.4 Red and Yellow: From Micro to Macro Scales 29

2.5 What Is the Future for Natural Colorants in the Dawning Era of Renewable Resources? 30

Acknowledgement 31

References 31

3 History of Natural Dyes in North Africa_Egypt 33
Harby Ezzeldeen Ahmed

3.1 Introduction 33

3.2 Natural Dyes in Pharaonic Textiles 34

3.3 Dyeing Techniques 34

3.4 Dye Sources 34

3.4.1 Woad 35

3.4.2 Indigo 35

3.4.3 Red 35

3.4.4 Yellow 36

3.4.5 Black 36

3.4.6 Brown 36

3.4.7 Green 36

3.4.8 Purple 36

3.5 Dyeing in Coptic Textiles 36

3.6 Wool- Dyed Fabric with Natural Dye 38

3.7 Dyes in Islamic Textiles 38

3.8 Mordants 40

References 40

II Natural Colorants in Different Regions of the World 43

4 Sources for Natural Colorants in Europe 45
Thomas Bechtold, Tung Pham and Avinash P. Manian

4.1 Introduction 45

4.2 Cultivation 46

4.2.1 Potential European Dye Plants Yesterday and Now 46

4.2.2 Modern Cultivation Methods - General Facts 47

4.2.3 Blue- Dye Plants 48

4.2.4 Red- Dye Plants 49

4.2.5 Yellow- Dye Plants 49

4.2.6 Brown- Dye Plants 52

4.2.7 Production of Dye Extracts 54

4.3 Natural Colorants from Agro- Food Residues 55

4.4 Natural Colorants from Forestry and Timber Industry 56

4.5 Relevant Examples for the Application 57

4.6 Conclusions, Discussion, and Summary 58

Acknowledgement 58

References 59

5 Dyes in South America 63
Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Adriana Zerlotti Mercadante

5.1 Introduction 63

5.2 Annatto 65

5.3 Turmeric 67

5.4 Marigold 68

5.5 Cochineal and Carmine 69

Acknowledgements 71

References 71

6 Natural Dyes in Eastern Asia (Vietnam and Neighboring Countries) 75
Tung Pham and Thomas Bechtold

6.1 Introduction 75

6.2 Annatto (Bixa orellana L., Family Bixaceae) 75

6.3 Tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze, Family Theaceae) 77

6.4 Umbrella Tree (Terminalia catappa L., Family Combretaceae) 77

6.5 Mackloeur (Diospyros mollis L. Griff, Family Ebenaceae) 78

6.6 Indigo (Indigofera L., Family Fabaceae) 79

6.6.1 Indigofera tinctoria L. 79

6.6.2 Indigofera galegoides dc 80

6.6.3 Strobilanthes cusia (Baphicacanthus) 80

6.7 Henna (Kok Khan or Khao Youak in Laos) (Lawsonia spinosa L., Family Lythraceae) 80

6.8 Nacre (African Mahogany, Khaya senegalensis, Family Meliaceae) 81

6.9 Sappan Wood (Caesalpinia sappan L., Family Fabaceae) 81

6.10 Japanese Pagoda Tree Flowers (Sophora japonica L., Family Leguminosae) 82

6.11 Turmeric (Curcuma longa L., Family Zingiberaceae) 82

6.12 Sapodilla (Manilkara zapota L. or Achras zapota, Family Sapotaceae) 82

6.13 Betel (Piper betel L., Family Piperaceae) 83

6.14 Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus, Family Myrtaceae) 83

6.15 Caesalpinia Yellow (Caesalpinia pulcherrima L., Family Fabaceae) 83

6.16 Brow- Tuber; Yam (Dioscorea cirrhosa Lour, Family Dioscoreaceae) 83

6.17 Others 84

Acknowledgement 84

References 84

7 Sources for Natural Colorants in China 89
Ren-Cheng Tang

7.1 Introduction 89

7.2 Sophora japonica Yellow 92

7.3 Turmeric 93

7.4 Gardenia Yellow 93

7.5 Emodin 93

7.6 Baicalin 94

7.7 Berberine 94

7.8 Henna 94

7.9 Monascus Red 95

7.10 Madder 95

7.11 Sorghum Red 95

7.12 Mulberry Red 96

7.13 Shikonin 96

7.14 Indigo 96

7.15 Condensed Tannins 97

7.16 Tea Polyphenols 98

7.17 Gallnut 99

References 99

8 Sources, Application, and Analysis of Natural Colorants: An Indian Perspective 103
Prof. (Dr.) Ashis Kumar Samanta and Prof. (Dr.) Deepali Singhee

8.1 Introduction 103

8.2 Natural Dyes in India 104

8.2.1 History 104

8.2.2 Traditional Processes of Dyeing with Natural Dyes in Different Parts of India 105

8.2.3 Sources of Natural Dyes in India 106

8.2.4 Use of Some Natural Dyes in Traditional Textiles of India 107

8.3 Details of Some Dye Sources and Their Application in India 109

8.3.1 Turmeric 109

8.3.2 Pomegranate 111

8.3.3 Flame of Forest 114

8.3.4 Marigold 116

8.3.5 Safflower 118

8.3.6 Annatto 120

8.3.7 Madder 123

8.3.8 Indian Mulberry 125

8.3.9 Arjuna 127

8.3.10 Sappanwood 130

8.3.11 Eucalyptus 132

8.3.12 Catechu 134

8.3.13 Gallnut 137

8.3.14 Myrobolan 140

8.3.15 Lac 142

8.3.16 Indigo 145

References 147

9 Natural Dye Gardens in North America 161
Wendy Weiss and Thomas Bechtold

9.1 Introduction 161

9.2 Participants 162

9.3 Education 163

9.4 Motivation to Work with Natural Dye 166

9.5 Plant List - Cultivated Plants 166

9.6 Chemical Background of Most Relevant Plants 168

9.7 Plant List - Foraged Plants 172

9.8 Plants with Indigotin 172

9.9 Importance of the Fibershed Movement 173

9.10 Educational and Community Gardens 174

9.11 Mexico 177

9.12 Canada 177

9.13 Future Research 178

References 178

Notes 179

III Colorant Production and Properties 181

10 Chlorophylls 183
María Roca

10.1 Introduction 183

10.2 Chemical Structures and Physicochemical Properties 184

10.3 Chlorophylls as Colorants 187

10.4 New Trends in the Use of Chlorophylls as Colorants 189

10.5 Stability and Analysis 190

10.6 Toxicological and Safety Aspects 191

References 192

11 Indigo - Production and Properties 195
Philip John and Luciana Gabriella Angelini

11.1 Introduction 195

11.2 Agronomy 196

11.2.1 Isatis 196

11.2.1.1 Developmental Stages and Climate and Soil Crop Requirements 197

11.2.1.2 Rotation 201

11.2.1.3 Soil Tillage and Seed Sowing 202

11.2.1.4 Weeds, Pests, and Diseases 203

11.2.1.5 Fertilizers and Irrigation 204

11.2.1.6 Harvesting and Yields 205

11.2.1.7 Seed Production 207

11.2.1.8 Isatis indigotica Compared with Isatis tinctoria 208

11.2.2 Persicaria 209

11.2.2.1 Introduction 209

11.2.2.2 Developmental Stages 211

11.2.2.3 Sowing, Harvesting, and Yield 211

11.2.2.4 Weeds, Pests, and Diseases 216

11.2.2.5 Fertilizer and Irrigation Requirement 216

11.2.2.6 Seed Production 217

11.2.3 Indigofera 217

11.3 Methods of Determining Indigo 219

11.4 Precursors in the Plants 222

11.5 Direct Dyeing with Indican 227

11.6 Indigo Formation 227

11.7 Extraction Procedures 229

11.7.1 Traditional Process Using Crushed Leaf Material 229

11.7.1.1 Isatis 229

11.7.1.2 Persicaria 230

11.7.2 Steeping in Water 231

11.7.2.1 Indigofera 232

11.7.2.2 Isatis 234

11.7.2.3 Persicaria 239

11.8 Purity of Natural Indigo 240

11.8.1 Purification by Sublimation 241

11.8.2 Impurities in Natural Indigo 242

Acknowledgements 245

References 245

12 Anthocyanins: Revisiting Nature’s Glamorous Palette 251
Maria J. Melo, Fernando Pina, Natércia Teixeira and Claude Andary

12.1 Chemical Basis 251

12.1.1 Chemical Structures 251

12.1.2 Equilibria in Solution 253

12.1.3 Kinetics 254

12.1.4 Color and Color Stability 254

12.1.5 Anthocyanins as Antioxidants 258

12.2 Natural Sources and Applications for Anthocyanins 259

12.2.1 Plants Sources, Content, Influencing Parameters 259

12.2.2 Food Colorants 260

12.2.3 Other Uses 261

12.2.4 Examples of Commercial Products and Processing 262

References 263

Appendix 1 267

A1.1 Multi-Equilibria in Acidic and Basic Media 267

A1.2 Measuring the Equilibria Constants 269

13 Natural Colorants - Quinoid, Naphthoquinoid, and Anthraquinoid Dyes 271
Goverdina C. H. Derksen and Thomas Bechtold

13.1 Introduction 271

13.2 Benzoquinone Dyes 271

13.3 Diaryloylmethane Dyes 273

13.4 Naphthoquinone Dyes 273

13.4.1 Lawson (2- hydroxy- 1,4- naphthoquinone, CI Natural Orange 6) 274

13.4.1.1 Properties and Use 274

13.4.1.2 Agricultural Aspects 276

13.4.2 Juglone (5- hydroxy- 1,4- naphthoquinone, CI Natural Brown 7) 278

13.5 Anthraquinone Dyes 279

13.5.1 Main Components Emodin and Chrysophanol - Rheum and Rumex Species 279

13.5.2 Main Components Alizarin and/or Pseudopurpurin/Purpurin 281

13.5.2.1 Plant Sources 281

13.5.2.2 Madder CI Natural Red 8 282

References 294

14 Natural Colorants from Lichens and Mushrooms 317
Riikka Räisänen

14.1 Use of Lichen and Mushroom Colorants in History 317

14.2 Cultivation of Lichens and Mushrooms 318

14.3 Colorant Structures in Lichens and Mushrooms 319

14.3.1 Lichen Dyes: Orchils and Litmus 321

14.3.2 Yellowish, Brownish, and Reddish Colorants from Lichen 322

14.3.3 Blue Terphenylquinones from Mushrooms 322

14.3.4 Anthraquinones 324

14.3.4.1 Bloodred Webcap (Cortinarius sanguineus) 324

14.3.5 Other Colorants of Fungi 326

14.3.5.1 Yellows from Grevillines 326

14.3.5.2 Yellow and Orange Colors from Pulvinic Acid Derivatives 326

14.3.5.3 Brown from Badiones 326

14.4 Stability of Lichen and Mushroom Colorants 326

14.5 New Approaches to Lichen and Fungal Colorants 327

References 328

15 Focus on Tannins 333
Riitta Julkunen-Tiitto and Hely Häggman

15.1 Introduction 333

15.2 Chemical Structure, Biosynthesis, and Degradation 335

15.3 Properties of Tannins 338

15.4 Chemical Activities of Tannins 340

15.5 Analysis of Tannins 340

15.5.1 Sample Preservation 340

15.5.2 Extraction and Purification 340

15.5.3 Quantification of Tannins 341

15.6 Use, Toxicology, and Safety Aspects of Tannins 342

References 345

16 Carotenoid Dyes - Properties and Production 351
U. Gamage Chandrika

16.1 Introduction 351

16.1.1 Occurrence of Carotenoids 351

16.1.2 Chemistry of Carotenoids 351

16.1.3 Chemical Characteristics of Natural Carotenoids 352

16.2 Properties and Functions of Carotenoids 354

16.2.1 Carotenoids’ Role as Pro- vitamin A 354

16.2.2 Use of Carotenoids as Markers of Dietary Practices 356

16.2.3 Carotenoids as Antioxidants 356

16.2.4 Carotenoids in the Macular Region of the Retina 357

16.2.5 Carotenoids as Anticancer Agents 357

16.2.6 Carotenoids as Natural Colorants 357

16.3 General Procedure for Carotenoid Analysis 357

16.3.1 Sampling 359

16.3.2 Extraction 359

16.3.3 Saponification of Carotenoids 359

16.3.4 Chromatographic Separation 359

16.3.5 Chemical Tests 361

16.3.6 Detection and Identification of Carotenoids 361

16.3.7 Quantification of Carotenoids 362

16.4 Problems in Carotenoid Analysis 362

16.5 Factors Influencing Carotenoid Composition in Plant Sources 363

16.5.1 Stage of Maturity 363

16.5.2 Cultivar or Varietal Differences 363

16.5.3 Climatic or Geographic Effects 364

16.5.4 Post- Harvest Storage and Packing 364

16.5.5 Changes in Processing/Cooking 364

16.5.6 Effect of Agrochemicals 366

References 366

17 Flavonoids as Natural Pigments 371
M. Monica Giusti, Gonzalo Miyagusuku-Cruzado and Taylor C. Wallace

17.1 Introduction 371

17.2 Role of Localized Flavonoids in the Plant 372

17.3 General Flavonoid Chemical Structure 372

17.4 Biosynthesis of Flavonoids 373

17.5 Anthocyanins as Natural Colorants 373

17.5.1 Structure 375

17.5.2 Structural Transformation and pH 376

17.5.3 Temperature 377

17.5.4 Oxygen and Ascorbic Acid 377

17.5.5 Light 378

17.5.6 Enzymes and Sugars 379

17.5.7 Sulfur Dioxide 379

17.5.8 Co- Pigmentation and Metal Complexation 380

17.6 Other Flavonoids as Natural Colorants 381

17.6.1 Yellow Flavonoid Pigments 381

17.6.2 Tannins 381

17.6.3 Anthocyanin- Derived Pigments: Pyranoanthocyanins 382

17.7 Therapeutic Effects of Flavonoids in the Diet 382

17.8 The Use of Flavonoids as Food Colors in the US and EU 383

References 384

18 Natural Colorants from Fungi 391
Cassamo U. Mussagy, Fernanda de Oliveira and Valeria C. Santos-Ebinuma

18.1 Introduction 391

18.2 Types of Fungi Colorants 392

18.3 Fungal Producer of Colorants 394

18.4 Bioprocess 395

18.4.1 Biosynthesis Pathway 395

18.4.2 Production and Extraction Process 400

18.5 Toxicity 404

18.6 Industrial Application of Fungi Colorants 406

18.7 Conclusion 407

References 407

19 Natural Colorants from Cyanobacteria and Algae 417
Laurent Dufossé

19.1 Introduction 417

19.2 Phycobiliproteins from Cyanobacteria 418

19.2.1 Structural Characteristics of Phycobiliproteins 420

19.2.2 Food Grade Phycobiliproteins 422

19.2.3 Future Trends 422

19.3 Pigments from Microalgae 422

19.3.1 β- Carotene from the Microalga Dunaliella, Salty but Effective! 423

19.3.1.1 β- Carotene from Microalgae 423

19.3.1.2 Dunaliella Species for Carotenoids 424

19.3.2 Why Carotenoids from Dunaliella? 424

19.3.2.1 Natural vs. Synthetic β- Carotene 424

19.3.2.2 Applications of β- Carotene 424

19.3.2.3 Advantages of Carotenoids Production from Dunaliella 425

19.3.2.4 Process for Production of β- Carotene from Dunaliella 425

19.3.2.5 Companies Producing Dunaliella 425

19.3.2.6 Marketed Products of β- Carotene 426

19.3.3 Haematococcus for Astaxanthin, the Red Gold Rush 426

19.3.3.1 Advantages of Astaxanthin over Other Carotenoids 427

19.3.3.2 Astaxanthin as Nutraceutical 427

19.3.3.3 Astaxanthin as Antioxidant 427

19.3.3.4 Astaxanthin for Health 428

19.3.3.5 Astaxanthin for Salmon and Trout Feeds 428

19.3.3.6 Astaxanthin for Humans 429

19.3.3.7 Production System for Haematococcus 429

19.3.3.8 Companies Producing Astaxanthin from Haematococcus 430

19.3.3.9 Astaxanthin- Containing Formulations 431

19.4 Natural Colorants from Macroalgae (e.g., Seaweeds) 431

19.4.1 Biodiversity of Seaweeds 431

19.4.2 Seasonal Variations and Environmental Threats 432

19.4.3 Major Classes of Seaweed Pigments 433

19.4.3.1 Chlorophylls 433

19.4.3.2 Carotenoids 433

19.4.3.3 Phycobiliproteins 434

19.5 Conclusion 434

References 434

20 Biotechnological Production of Microbial Pigments: Recent Findings 439
Vivian Katherine Colorado Gómez, Juan Pablo Ruiz-Sánchez, Alejandro Méndez-Zavala, Lourdes Morales-Oyervides and Julio Montañez

20.1 Introduction 439

20.2 Microbial Pigments Market 440

20.3 Production Strategies 440

20.4 Novel Extraction Technologies for Pigments Recovery 441

20.5 Regulation and Biosynthesis of Microbial Pigments 443

20.6 Strain Engineering Strategies for Pigment Production 446

20.7 Trends in New Microbial Sources of Pigments 448

20.8 Microbial Pigments Applications 449

20.8.1 Solar Cells 449

20.8.2 Therapeutic Application 450

20.8.3 Other Applications 450

20.9 Regulations on Microbial Pigments Use 451

20.10 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 452

References 452

21 Analytical Methods for Characterization and Standardization of Natural Dyes and Pigments 459
Tung Pham, Avinash Manian and Thomas Bechtold

21.1 Introduction 459

21.2 Chemical Analysis - Identification 460

21.3 Quantification by Sum Parameters 463

21.4 Applicatory Tests 464

21.5 Product Performance 465

References 466

22 Wood - From Natural Color Patterns Toward Naturally Altered Color Impressions 469
Martin Weigl-Kuska, Andreas Kandelbauer, Christian Hansmann and Ulrich Müller

22.1 The Color of Wood 469

22.1.1 Wood Chemical Composition 470

22.1.2 Wood Anatomical Appearance 471

22.1.3 Physical Properties of the Wood Surface 472

22.2 Coatings 473

22.3 Dyes 477

22.3.1 Impregnation 477

22.3.1.1 Technology 477

22.3.1.2 Color 479

22.3.1.3 Products 480

22.4 Color Modification 481

22.4.1 Drying 482

22.4.1.1 Basics 482

22.4.1.2 Technology 483

22.4.1.3 Color 484

22.4.2 Steaming 485

22.4.2.1 Basics 485

22.4.2.2 Technology 485

22.4.2.3 Color 486

22.4.3 Thermal Treatment 487

22.4.3.1 Technology 487

22.4.3.2 Color 487

22.4.4 Ammoniation 488

22.4.4.1 Basics 488

22.4.4.2 Color 489

22.4.5 Bleaching 491

22.4.5.1 Basics 491

22.4.5.2 Color 491

22.4.6 Enzymatic Treatment 492

22.4.6.1 Basics 492

22.4.6.2 Laccases 493

22.4.7 Radiation 495

22.4.7.1 Basics 495

22.4.7.2 Color 495

22.4.7.3 Technology 497

22.5 Outlook 498

References 498

23 The Role of Mordants in Fixation of Natural Dyes 507
Avinash P. Manian

23.1 Introduction 507

23.2 Metal Salts 508

23.3 Biomordants 508

23.4 Substrate Pretreatments 508

23.5 No Mordant 509

References 509

24 Textile Coloration with Natural Dyes and Pigments 517
Thomas Bechtold, Tung Pham and Avinash P. Manian

24.1 Introduction 517

24.2 Reasons for Natural Coloration 518

24.3 The Dyestuff-Fiber Interaction 520

24.4 Design of a Dyeing Process 521

24.5 Transfer of a Dyeing Process into Technical Scale 523

24.6 Processes and Resources 524

24.7 Technical Requirements for a Natural Dyestuff 526

24.7.1 Gamut and Color Shade 526

24.7.2 Fastness Criteria 528

24.8 Handling of Natural Dyes in a Technical Dyehouse 530

24.9 Mordanting 531

24.10 Natural Dyes on an Industrial Scale 533

24.10.1 Dyeing Technology - Exhaust Process 533

24.10.2 Hank Dyeing of Woolen Yarn and Production of Woolen Caps 534

24.10.3 Dyeing of Cones in a Yarn Dyeing Machine 534

24.10.4 Dyeing of Cotton Fabric on a Jet Dyeing Machine 535

24.10.5 Fabric Dyeing on a Garment Dyeing Machine 536

24.10.6 Dyeing of Polyamide Tights in a Paddle Dyeing Machine 536

24.10.7 Dyeing Technology - Continuous Dyeing 536

24.11 Conclusion 537

Acknowledgement 538

References 538

25 Hair Coloration with Natural Dyes and Pigments 543
Thomas Bechtold

25.1 Introduction 543

25.2 Human Hair 544

25.3 General Requirements on Hair Dyeing Concepts 544

25.4 Chemical Principles of Dyestuff Binding 546

25.5 Relevant Natural Dyes for Hair Dyeing 546

25.5.1 Naphthoquinone Dyes - Henna and Walnut 546

25.5.1.1 Henna, CI (Color Index) Natural Orange 6 546

25.5.1.2 Juglon, CI Natural Brown 7 547

25.5.2 Indigo 548

25.5.3 Metal Complexes 548

25.5.4 Metal Reaction Dyes 550

25.5.5 Anthraquinoid Dyes 551

25.6 Specialties 551

25.7 Regulations 552

References 552

26 Natural Colorants in the Mass Coloration of Plastics 557
Thomas Bechtold and Tung Pham

26.1 Introduction 557

26.2 Representative Examples 559

Acknowledgement 561

References 561

27 Natural Colorants in Printing/Packaging 563
Thomas Bechtold and Tung Pham

27.1 Introduction 563

27.2 Packaging Films 564

27.3 Film Coloration 567

27.4 Paper Dyeing 568

27.5 Paints 568

Acknowledgement 569

References 569

28 Technical Aspects and Requirements to Produce Natural Colorants - Processes and Product Standardization 573
Thomas Bechtold and Avinash Manian

28.1 Introduction 573

28.2 Sources of Plant Material - Product I 576

28.2.1 Organic Farming 576

28.2.2 Sustainable Farming 576

28.2.3 Native Species 577

28.2.4 Farming for Food or/and Natural Colorants 577

28.2.5 Residual Materials and By- Products 577

28.3 Processing to Dyestuff - Product II 579

28.4 Quality Control and Standardization of a Dye (Product II) 583

28.4.1 Anthocyanins 584

28.4.2 Flavonoids 584

28.4.3 Dye Lakes 585

28.5 Challenges for the Industrial Use of Natural Colorants 585

28.6 Dealing with Sustainability 586

28.7 Conclusions 587

References 587

29 Environmental and Economic Position of Natural Colorants - Energy and Resources Balances, Sustainability, Ecology, and Costs 591
Susanne Geissler and Thomas Bechtold

29.1 Introduction 591

29.2 Dye Plant Production 592

29.3 Dye Extraction and Dyestuff Production 595

29.4 Transportation 596

29.5 Textile Dyeing 596

29.6 Commercial Aspects - Costs 597

29.6.1 Basic Requirements for the Industrial Use of Natural Colorants 598

29.6.1.1 Precondition 1: acceptable costs of natural colorants and dyeing processes 599

29.6.1.2 Precondition 2: feasible cost of process engineering 599

29.6.1.3 Precondition 3: compliance with requested colorfastness properties 599

29.6.1.4 Precondition 4: competitive cost of naturally dyed products 600

29.6.1.5 Precondition 5: security of natural colorant supply 600

29.6.2 Consumer Expectations 600

29.6.3 Market Research for Naturally Dyed Products 601

29.7 Production Costs of Natural Colorant Products 602

29.7.1 Cost Categories 603

29.7.2 Aspects Influencing Production Costs 603

29.8 Prices of Synthetic Dyes - How Much Are Textile Companies Prepared to Pay for Dyes? 605

29.9 Acceptable Production Costs through a Mixed Portfolio (Agricultural Primary Production and Residues from Other Production Processes) 606

29.10 Closed- Loop Economy: Toward a Zero- Emission and Zero- Waste Society 607

29.11 Considerations Concerning the Life Cycle 609

29.12 Conclusion: Aspects Influencing Market Development for Natural Colorants 609

References 610

30 Aspects of Human Toxicology and Consumer Safety 613
Judith Büttler, Thomas Bechtold and Tung Pham

30.1 Introduction 613

30.2 Basic Aspects of Xenobiotic- Induced Toxicity 614

30.3 Toxicological Aspects of Natural Colorants in Food and Medical Applications 615

30.3.1 Risk Assessment 617

30.3.2 Therapeutic Effects (= Risk) 618

30.4 Toxicological Aspects of Natural Colorants in Cosmetics 618

30.4.1 Risk Assessment 619

30.5 Toxicological Aspects of Natural Colorants in Textile Dyeing 619

30.5.1 Plant Extracts 620

30.5.2 Pretreatment Agents and Mordants 621

30.5.3 Wastewater and Antimicrobial Compounds 621

30.5.4 Dyed Products 622

30.6 Test Methods for Toxicity Screening 622

30.6.1 Extract Preparation 624

30.6.2 Cytotoxicity 624

30.6.3 Mutagenicity and Carcinogenicity 625

30.6.4 Antimicrobial Activity 625

30.6.5 Metabolism and In Vivo Animal Bioassays 626

Acknowledgement 626

References 626

Index 629

Authors

Thomas Bechtold University of Innsbruck, Austria. Avinash P. Manian University of Innsbruck, Austria. Tung Pham University of Innsbruck, Austria.