This book looks at the current state of food security and climate change, discusses the issues that are affecting them, and the actions required to ensure there will be enough food for the future. By casting a much wider net than most previously published books - to include select novel approaches, techniques, genes from crop diverse genetic resources or relatives - it shows how agriculture may still be able to triumph over the very real threat of climate change.
Food Security and Climate Change integrates various challenges posed by changing climate, increasing population, sustainability in crop productivity, demand for food grains to sustain food security, and the anticipated future need for nutritious quality foods. It looks at individual factors resulting from climate change, including rising carbon emission levels, increasing temperature, disruptions in rainfall patterns, drought, and their combined impact on planting environments, crop adaptation, production, and management. The role of plant genetic resources, breeding technologies of crops, biotechnologies, and integrated farm management and agronomic good practices are included, and demonstrate the significance of food grain production in achieving food security during climate change.
Food Security and Climate Change is an excellent book for researchers, scientists, students, and policy makers involved in agricultural science and technology, as well as those concerned with the effects of climate change on our environment and the food industry.
Table of Contents
List of Contributors xvii
1 Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security 1
Shyam S. Yadav, V. S. Hegde, Abdul Basir Habibi,Mahendra Dia, and Suman Verma
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Climate Change and Agriculture 3
1.1.2 Impact of Dioxide on Crop Productivity 4
1.1.3 Impact of Ozone on Crop Productivity 5
1.1.4 Impact of Temperature and a Changed Climate on Crop Productivity 6
1.2 Climate Change and Food Security 6
1.2.1 Climate Change and Food Availability 7
1.2.2 Climate Change and Stability of Food Production 8
1.2.3 Climate Change and Access to Food 8
1.2.4 Climate Change and Food Utilization 9
1.3 Predicted Impacts of Climate Change on Global Agriculture, Crop Production, and Livestock 10
1.3.1 Climate Change Mitigation, Adaptation, and Resilience 11
1.3.2 Mitigation 12
1.3.3 Adaptation and Resilience 12
1.3.4 Policies, Incentives, Measures, and Mechanisms for Mitigation and Adaptation 13
1.4 Impact of Divergent & Associated Technologies on Food Security under Climate Change 14
1.4.1 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 15
1.4.2 Technological Options for Boosting Sustainable Agriculture Production 15
1.4.3 Mechanization in Agriculture Sector 16
1.4.4 Food Processing and Quality Agro-Products Processing 16
1.4.5 Planning, Implementing and Evaluating Climate-Smart Agriculture in Smallholder Farming Systems17
1.5 The Government of India Policies and Programs for Food Security 17
1.6 Conclusions 18
References 19
2 Changes in Food Supply and Demand by 2050 25
Timothy S. Thomas
2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 Model Description 26
2.3 Model Assumptions 26
2.3.1 Economic and Demographic Assumptions 26
2.4 Climate Assumptions 28
2.5 Results 30
2.5.1 Production 30
2.6 Underutilized Crops 38
2.7 Consumption 38
2.8 Trade and Prices 42
2.9 Food Security 46
2.10 Conclusion 48
References 50
3 Crop Responses to Rising Atmospheric [CO2] and Global Climate Change 51
Pauline Lemonnier and Elizabeth A. Ainsworth
3.1 Introduction 51
3.1.1 Rising Atmospheric [CO2] and Global Climate Change 51
3.1.2 Measuring Crop Responses to Rising [CO2] 53
3.1.3 Physiological Responses to Rising [CO2] 54
3.2 Crop Production Responses to Rising [CO2] 58
3.2.1 Effects of Rising [CO2] on Food Quality 59
3.2.2 Strategies to Improve Crop Production in a High CO2 World 61
3.2.2.1 Genetic Variability in Elevated [CO2] Responsiveness:The Potential and Challenges for Breeding 62
3.2.2.2 Strategies for Genetic Engineering 63
Acknowledgements 64
References 64
4 Adaptation of Cropping Systems to Drought under Climate Change (Examples from Australia and Spain) 71
Garry J. O’Leary, James G. Nuttall, Robert J. Redden, Carlos Cantero-Martinez,and M. InesMinguez
4.1 Introduction 71
4.2 Water Supply 72
4.2.1 Changing Patterns of Rainfall 72
4.2.2 Rotations, Fallow, and Soil Management 74
4.3 Interactions of Water with Temperature, CO2 and Nutrients 77
4.3.1 High Temperature Response of Wheat 77
4.3.2 High Temperature and Grain Quality of Wheat 79
4.3.3 Atmospheric CO2 Concentration and Crop Growth 79
4.3.4 Elevated Atmospheric CO2 and Grain Quality 80
4.4 Matching Genetic Resources to The Environment and the Challenge to Identify the Ideal Phenotype 80
4.5 Changing Climate and Strategies to Increase Crop Water Supply and Use 82
4.6 Beyond Australia and Spain 84
4.7 Conclusions 85
Acknowledgments 85
References 86
5 Combined Impacts of Carbon, Temperature, and Drought to Sustain Food Production 95
Jerry L. Hatfield
5.1 Introduction 95
5.1.1 Need for Food to Feed the Nine Billion by 2050 95
5.2 Changing Climate 96
5.3 Carbon Dioxide And Plant Growth 97
5.3.1 Responses of Plants to Increased CO2 97
5.3.2 Effect of Increased CO2 on Roots 100
5.3.3 Effect of Increased CO2 on Quality 100
5.4 Temperature Effects on Plant Growth 102
5.4.1 Responses of Plants to High Temperatures 102
5.4.2 Mechanisms of Temperature Effect on Plants 104
5.5 Water Effects on Plant Growth 106
5.5.1 Mechanisms of Water Stress 107
5.6 Interactions of Carbon Dioxide, Temperature, And Water in a Changing Climate 108
References 110
6 Scope, Options and Approaches to Climate Change 119
S. Seneweera, Kiruba Shankari Arun-Chinnappa, and Naoki Hirotsu
6.1 Introduction 119
6.2 Impact of CO2 and climate stress on growth and yield of agricultural crop 120
6.3 The Primary Mechanisms of Plants Respond to Elevated CO2 121
6.4 Interaction of Rising CO2 With Other Environmental Factors - Temperature And Water 121
6.5 Impact of Climate Change on Crop Quality 122
6.6 Climate Change, Crop Improvement, and Future Food Security 123
6.7 Intra-specific Variation in Crop Response to Elevated [CO2] - Current Germplasm Versus Wild Relatives 124
6.8 Identification of New QTLs for Plant Breeding 124
6.9 Association Mapping for Large Germplasm Screening 125
6.10 Genetic Engineering of CO2 Responsive Traits 125
6.11 Conclusions 126
References 127
7 Mitigation and Adaptation Approaches to Sustain Food Security under Climate Change 131
Li Ling and Xuxiao Zong
7.1 Technology and its Approaches Options to Climate Change in Agriculture System 132
7.1.1 Adjusting Agricultural Farming Systems and Organization, with Changes in Cropping Systems 133
7.1.2 Changing Farm Production Activities 135
7.1.3 Developing Biotechnology, Breeding New Varieties to Adapt to Climate Change 135
7.1.4 Developing Information Systems, and Establishing a Disaster PreventionSystem 136
7.1.5 Strengthening the Agricultural Infrastructure, Adjusting Management Measures 137
7.2 Development and Implementation of Techniques to Combat Climatic Changes 137
7.2.1 Improving Awareness of Potential Implications of Climate Change Among All Parties Involved (from grassroots level to decision makers) 138
7.2.2 Enhancing Research on Typical Technology 138
7.2.2.1 Enhancing Research on Typical Technology for Different Areas 138
7.2.2.2 Enhancing Research on Food Quality Under Climate Change 138
7.2.2.3 Enhancing Research on Legumes and Its Biological Nitrogen Fixation 139
7.2.3 Developing Climate-Crop Modelling as an Aid to Constructing Scenarios 140
7.2.4 Development and Assessment Efforts of Adaptation Technology 140
References 141
8 Role of Plant Breeding to Sustain Food Security under Climate Change 145
Rodomiro Ortiz
8.1 Introduction 145
8.2 Sources of Genetic Diversity and their Screening for Stress Adaptation 146
8.2.1 Crop-related Species 146
8.2.2 Domestic Genetic Diversity 146
8.2.3 Crossbreeding 147
8.2.4 Pre-breeding 148
8.2.5 Biotechnology and Modeling as Aids for Breeding Cultivars 148
8.3 Physiology-facilitated Breeding and Phenotyping 149
8.3.1 Abiotic Stress Adaptation and Resource-use Efficiency 150
8.3.2 Precise and HighThroughput Phenotyping 150
8.4 DNA-markers for Trait Introgression and Omics-led Breeding 151
8.5 Transgenic Breeding 152
References 153
9 Role of Plant Genetic Resources in Food Security 159
Robert J. Redden, Hari Upadyaya, Sangam L. Dwivedi, Vincent Vadez,Michael Abberton, and Ahmed Amri
9.1 Introduction 159
9.2 Climate Change and Agriculture 160
9.3 Adjusting Crop Distribution 160
9.4 Within Crop Genetic Diversity for Abiotic Stress Tolerances 160
9.5 Broadening the Available Genetic Diversity Within Crops 161
9.6 Crop Wild Relatives as a Novel Source Of Genetic Diversity 161
9.7 Genomics, Genetic Variation and Breeding for Tolerance of Abiotic Stresses 162
9.8 Under-utilised Species 163
9.9 Genetic Resources in the Low Rainfall Temperate Crop Zone 164
9.10 Forage and Range Species 166
9.11 Genetic Resources in the Humid Tropics 166
9.12 Genetic Resources in the Semi-arid Tropics and Representative Subsets 168
9.13 Plant Phenomics 168
9.14 Discovering Climate Resilient Germplasm Using Representative Subsets 170
9.14.1 Multiple Stress Tolerances 170
9.14.2 Drought Tolerance 170
9.14.3 Heat Tolerance 173
9.14.4 Tolerance of Soil Nutrient Imbalance 174
9.15 Global Warming and Declining Nutritional Quality 174
9.16 Crop Wild Relatives (CWR) -The Source of Allelic Diversity 174
9.17 Introgression of Traits from CWR 175
9.18 Association Genetics to Abiotic Stress Adaptation 176
9.19 Strategic Overview 177
9.20 Perspectives 177
9.21 Summary 179
References 179
10 Breeding New Generation Genotypes for Conservation Agriculture in Maize-Wheat Cropping Systems under Climate Change 189
Rajbir Yadav, Kiran Gaikwad, Ranjan Bhattacharyya, Naresh Kumar Bainsla,Manjeet Kumar, and Shyam S. Yadav
10.1 Introduction 189
10.2 Challenges Before Indian Agriculture 191
10.2.1 Declining Profit 191
10.2.2 Depleting Natural Resources: 193
10.2.2.1 Water: 193
10.2.2.2 Soil Health/ Soil Quality 193
10.2.3 Changing Climate 195
10.2.4 Climate Change Adaptation:Why it is Important in Wheat? 198
10.3 CA as a Concept to AddressThese Issues Simultaneously 199
10.4 Technological Gaps for CA in India 199
10.4.1 Machinery Issue 199
10.4.2 Non-availability of Adapted Genotypes for Conservation Agriculture 200
10.4.3 Designing the Breeding Strategies 201
10.5 Characteristics of Genotypes Adapted for CA 202
10.5.1 Role of Coleoptiles in Better Stand Establishment Under CA 202
10.5.2 Spreading Growth Habit During Initial Phase for Better Moisture Conservation and Smothering of Weeds 204
10.5.3 Exploitation of Vernalization Requirement for Intensification 205
10.5.4 Integrating Cropping System and Agronomy Perspective in Breeding for CA 209
10.6 Wheat Ideotype for Rice-Wheat Cropping Systems of Northern India 214
10.7 Breeding Methodology Adopted in IARI for CA Specific Breeding 215
10.8 Countering the Tradeoff Between Stress Adaptation and Yield Enhancement Through CA Directed Breeding 216
10.8.1 Yield Enhancement by IncreasingWater Use EfficiencyThrough CA 218
10.9 Conclusions 220
References 221
11 Pests and Diseases under Climate Change; Its Threat to Food Security 229
Piotr Trȩbicki and Kyla Finlay
11.1 Introduction 229
11.2 Climate Change and Insect Pests 231
11.3 Climate Change and Plant Viruses 235
11.4 Climate Change and Fungal Pathogens 238
11.5 Climate Change and Effects on Host Plant Distribution and Availability 240
Acknowledgments 241
References 241
12 Crop Production Management to Climate Change 251
Sain Dass, S. L. Jat, Gangadhar Karjagi Chikkappa, and C.M. Parihar
12.1 Introduction 251
12.2 Maize Scenario in World and India 251
12.3 The Growth Rate of Maize 254
12.4 Maize Improvement 256
12.5 Single Cross Hybrids 256
12.6 Pedigree Breeding for Inbred Lines Development 257
12.6.1 Seed multiplication 258
12.6.2 Single Cross Development 258
12.7 Preferred Characteristics for Good Parent 259
12.7.1 Female or Seed Parent 259
12.7.2 Development of Specialty Corn Schs 259
12.7.3 Baby Corn and Sweet Corn 259
12.7.4 Quality Protein Maize (QPM) 260
12.7.4.1 Improvement of Inbred Lines 260
12.7.4.2 Improvement of Inbred Lines through MAS 260
12.7.4.3 Foreground selection 260
12.7.4.4 Background selection 261
12.7.4.5 Marker Assisted Backcross Breeding strategies (MABB) 262
12.7.4.6 MABB at What Cost? 262
12.7.5 Doubled Haploid (DH) Technique 263
12.7.5.1 Steps Involved In Vivo DH Inbred Lines Development 263
12.7.5.2 Advantages of DH Lines over Conventional Inbred Lines 265
12.7.6 Transgenic Maize and its Potential 265
12.7.6.1 Abiotic Stresses 266
12.7.6.2 Drought Tolerance 267
12.7.6.3 Screening Techniques 267
12.7.7 Hybrid Seed Production 268
12.7.7.1 Pre-requisites of Single Cross Hybrid Seed Production 268
12.7.8 Important Considerations for Hybrid Seed Production 268
12.7.8.1 Isolation Distance 268
12.7.8.2 Male:female Ratio 269
12.7.8.3 How to Bring Male: female Synchrony? 269
12.7.8.4 Hybrid Seed Production Technology 269
12.7.8.5 Hybrid Seed Production Sites 272
12.7.9 Crop Production 272
12.7.9.1 Cropping System Optimization 272
12.7.9.2 Crop Sequence 273
12.7.9.3 Best Management Practices (BMP) for Crop Establishment 274
12.7.9.4 Crop Establishment 274
12.7.9.5 Raised Bed / ridge and Furrow Planting 276
12.7.9.6 Zero-till Planting 278
12.7.9.7 Conventional Till Flat Planting 278
12.7.9.8 Furrow Planting 278
12.7.9.9 Transplanting 279
12.7.9.10 BMP for Water Management 279
12.7.9.11 BMP for nutrient management 281
12.8 Nutrient Management Practices for Higher Productivity and Profitability in Maize Systems 283
12.8.1 Timing and method of fertilizer application 284
12.8.2 Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) 284
12.8.3 Biofertilizers 285
12.8.4 Micronutrient Application 285
12.8.5 Slow Release Fertilizers 285
12.8.6 Precision Nutrient Management 285
12.8.7 Conservation Agriculture and Smart Mechanization 286
References 287
13 Vegetable Genetic Resources for Food and Nutrition Security under Climate Change 289
Andreas W. Ebert
13.1 Introduction 289
13.2 Global vegetable production 290
13.3 The Role of Genetic Diversity to Maintain Sustainable Production Systems Under Climate Change 290
13.4 Ex Situ Conservation of Vegetable Germplasm at The Global Level 296
13.5 Access to Information on Ex Situ Germplasm Held Globally 302
13.5.1 SINGER: Online Catalog of International Collections Managed by the GCIAR And WorldVeg 303
13.5.2 EURISCO: the European Genetic Resources Search Catalog 303
13.5.3 GRIN of USDA-ARS 304
13.5.4 GENESYS: the global gateway to plant genetic resources 304
13.5.5 The CropWild Relatives Portal 305
13.5.6 Crop Trait Mining Platforms 305
13.5.6.1 Crop Trait Mining Informatics Platform 305
13.5.6.2 The Diversity Seek Initiative 306
13.5.7 Trait information portal for CWR and landraces and crop-trait ontologies 307
13.5.8 Summary and Outlook 308
13.6 In Situ and On-farm Conservation of Vegetable Resources 310
13.7 Summary and Outlook 311
Acknowledgment 312
References 312
Annex 1 315
14 Sustainable Vegetable Production to Sustain Food Security under Climate Change at Global Level 319
Andreas W. Ebert, Thomas Dubois, Abdou Tenkouano, Ravza Mavlyanova, Jaw-FenWang, Bindumadhava Hanumantha Rao, Srinivasan Ramasamy, Sanjeet Kumar, Fenton D. Beed, Marti Pottorff, Wuu-Yang Chen, Ramakrishnan M. Nair, Harsh Nayyar, and James J. Riley
14.1 Introduction 319
14.2 Regional Perspective: Sub-Saharan Africa 320
14.2.1 The Effects of Climate Change in Sub-Saharan Africa 320
14.2.2 Interactions Between Climate Change and Other Factors Driving Vegetable Production and Consumption in Sub-Saharan Africa 321
14.2.3 Implications of Climate Change and Other Factors on Vegetable Production and Consumption in Sub-Saharan Africa 321
14.3 Regional Perspective: South and Central Asia 325
14.3.1 The Effects of Climate Change in South Asia 325
14.3.2 The Effects of Climate Change in Central Asia 326
14.3.3 Climate Change Adaptation Options in South and Central Asia 326
14.4 The Role of Plant Genetic Resources for Sustainable Vegetable Production 328
14.5 Microbial Genetic Resources to Boost Agricultural Performance of Robust Production Systems and to Buffer Impacts of Climate Change 329
14.6 Physiological Responses to a Changing Climate: Elevated CO2 Concentrations and Temperature in The Environment 330
14.6.1 CO2 and Photosynthesis 330
14.6.2 CO2 and Stomatal Transpiration 331
14.6.3 Dual Effect of Increased CO2 and Temperature 331
14.6.3.1 High Temperature (HT) Effect on Mungbean 332
14.6.3.2 Current and Proposed Mungbean Physiology Studies at Worldveg South Asia 332
14.6.4 Conclusion 334
14.7 Plant Breeding for Sustainable Vegetable Production 335
14.7.1 Formal Vegetable Seed System -Lessons Learned 335
14.7.2 Role ofWorldVeg’s International Breeding Programs 336
14.7.3 Impact ofWorldVeg’s Breeding Programs 337
14.7.4 Future Outlook 337
14.8 Management of Bacterial and Fungal Diseases for Sustainable Vegetable Production 338
14.9 Management of Insect and Mite Pests 342
14.10 Grafting to Overcome Soil-borne Diseases and Abiotic Stresses 344
14.11 Summary and Outlook 347
Acknowledgment 347
References 348
15 Sustainable Production of Roots and Tuber Crops for Food Security under Climate Change 359
Mary Taylor, Vincent Lebot, Andrew McGregor, and Robert J. Redden
15.1 Introduction 359
15.2 Optimum Growing Conditions for Root and Tuber Crops 361
15.2.1 Sweet Potato 361
15.2.2 Cassava 361
15.2.3 Edible Aroids 362
15.2.3.1 Taro 362
15.2.3.2 Cocoyam 362
15.2.3.3 Giant Taro 363
15.2.3.4 Swamp Taro 363
15.2.4 Yams 363
15.3 Projected Response of Root and Tuber Crops to Climate Change 364
15.3.1 Sweet Potato 364
15.3.2 Cassava 364
15.3.2.1 Edible Aroids 365
15.3.2.2 Yam 365
15.4 Climate Change and Potato Production 366
15.5 Sustainable Production Approaches 367
15.5.1 Agroforestry Systems 367
15.5.1.1 Combining Tree Crops and Roots and Tubers 367
15.5.2 Soil Health Management 368
15.5.3 Utilizing Diversity 368
15.6 Optimization of Root and Tuber Crops Resilience to Climate Change 369
15.7 Conclusion 371
References 371
16 The Roles of Biotechnology in Agriculture to Sustain Food Security under Climate Change 377
Rebecca Ford, Yasir Mehmood, Usana Nantawan, and Chutchamas Kanchana-Udomkan
16.1 Introduction 377
16.2 ReducedWater Availability and Drought 378
16.3 Drought-proofing Wheat and Other Cereals 378
16.4 Drought Tolerance in Temperate Legumes 380
16.5 Drought Tolerance in Tropical Crops 381
16.6 Rainfall Intensity, Flooding and Water-logging Tolerance 383
16.7 Heat Stress And Thermo-tolerance 385
16.8 Thermo-tolerance and Heat Shock Proteins in Food Crops 385
16.9 Heat Stress Tolerance in Temperate Legumes 388
16.10 Salinity Stress, Ionic and Osmotic Tolerances 388
16.11 Salinity Tolerance in Rice 389
16.12 Salinity Tolerance in Legumes 390
16.13 Transgenics to Overcome Climate Change Imposed Abiotic Stresses 390
16.14 Conclusion 392
References 393
17 Application of Biotechnologies in the Conservation and Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources for Food Security 413
Toshiro Shigaki
17.1 Introduction 413
17.2 Climate change 413
17.2.1 Population Explosion 414
17.2.2 Vandalism 414
17.3 Collecting Germplasm 415
17.4 Conservation 415
17.4.1 In situ Collection 415
17.4.2 Ex situ Collection 416
17.4.3 Slow Growth in Tissue Culture 416
17.4.4 Cryopreservation 417
17.4.5 Herbarium 419
17.4.6 Svalbard Global Seed Vault 419
17.5 Characterization of Germplasm 420
17.5.1 Early Developments 420
17.5.1.1 RFLP 420
17.5.1.2 RAPD 421
17.5.2 New Developments 421
17.5.2.1 Genotyping by Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR) 421
17.5.2.2 Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) 421
17.5.3 Recent Developments 422
17.5.3.1 Genotyping by Sequencing (GBS) 422
17.5.4 Future Prospects 422
17.6 Germplasm Exchange 422
17.6.1 Bioassay 423
17.6.2 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) 423
17.6.3 PCR 423
17.6.4 Loop-mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) 423
17.7 Germplasm Utilization 425
17.7.1 Embryo Rescue 425
17.7.2 Somatic Hybridization 426
17.7.3 Molecular Breeding 426
17.7.4 Genetic Engineering 426
17.7.5 Biosafety 428
17.8 Future Strategies and Guidelines for the Preservation of Plant Genetic Resources 428
References 430
18 Climate Change Influence on Herbicide Efficacy andWeed Management 433
Mithila Jugulam, Aruna K. Varanasi, Vijaya K. Varanasi, and P.V.V. Prasad
18.1 Introduction 433
18.2 Herbicides in Weed Management 434
18.3 Climate Factors and Crop-Weed Competition 434
18.4 Climate Change Factors, Herbicide Efficacy and Weed Control 438
18.4.1 Effects of Elevated CO2 and High Temperatures 438
18.4.2 Effects of Precipitation and Relative Humidity 440
18.4.3 Effects of Solar Radiation 441
18.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Direction 442
Acknowledgments 442
References 442
19 Farmers’ Knowledge and Adaptation to Climate Change to Ensure Food Security 449
Lois Wright Morton
19.1 Farmers and Climate Change 449
19.2 Knowledge About Climate 451
19.3 Weather and Climate 452
19.4 Values and Beliefs About Climate Change 453
19.5 Farmer Climate Beliefs 454
19.6 Vulnerability, Experiences of Risk, Concern About Hazards and confidence 456
19.7 Climate Related Hazards 458
19.8 Adaptation Factors 460
19.9 Water is the Visible Face of Climate 462
19.10 Making Sense of Climate: Local, Indigenous and Scientific knowledge 463
19.11 System Adaptation or Transformation 465
References 467
20 Farmer and Community-led Approaches to Climate Change Adaptation of Agriculture Using Agricultural Biodiversity and Genetic Resources 471
Tony McDonald, Jessica Sokolow, and Danny Hunter
20.1 Introduction 471
20.2 Impact of Climate Change on Farming Communities 472
20.3 Inequity of Climate Change across Farming Communities 474
20.4 Impact of Climate Change on the Many Elements of Genetic Resources and Agricultural Biodiversity 475
20.5 Monocultures 475
20.6 Wild Species 476
20.7 Role of Genetic Resources and Agricultural Biodiversity in Coping with Climate Change 477
20.8 Brief Overview of Approaches Using Genetic Resources and Agricultural Biodiversity to Cope with Climate Change 478
20.9 Identification of a Spectrum of Examples of Farmer-led Approaches 482
20.10 Examination of Barriers to Implementation of Farmer-led Approaches 483
20.10.1 Farmers & their Communities 490
20.10.2 Institutional & Collaborative mechanisms 491
20.10.3 Contextual & Background 492
20.11 Systems that are working 493
20.12 Conclusion 494
References 494
21 Accessing Genetic Diversity for Food Security and Climate Change Adaptation in Select Communities in Africa 499
Otieno Gloria
21.1 Introduction 499
21.2 Methodology 501
21.2.1 Reference Sites and Crops 501
21.2.2 Data and Methods 502
21.3 Results and Discussion 504
21.3.1 Summary of Climate Change in Selected Sites 504
21.3.2 Finding Potentially Adaptable Accessions from a Pool of National and International Plant Genetic Resources 504
21.3.2.1 Zambia 505
21.3.2.2 Zimbabwe 508
21.3.2.3 Benin 508
21.4 Conclusions and Policy Implications 520
References 521
Index 523
