An in-depth text that explores the interface between analytical chemistry and trace evidence
Analytical Techniques in Forensic Science is a comprehensive guide written in accessible terms that examines the interface between analytical chemistry and trace evidence in forensic science. With contributions from noted experts on the topic, the text features a detailed introduction analysis in forensic science and then subsequent chapters explore the laboratory techniques grouped by shared operating principles. For each technique, the authors incorporate specific theory, application to forensic analytics, interpretation, forensic specific developments, and illustrative case studies.
Forensic techniques covered include UV-Vis and vibrational spectroscopy, mass spectrometry and gas and liquid chromatography. The applications reviewed include evidence types such as fibers, paint, drugs and explosives. The authors highlight data collection, subsequent analysis, what information has been obtained and what this means in the context of a case. The text shows how analytical chemistry and trace evidence can problem solve the nature of much of forensic analysis. This important text:
- Puts the focus on trace evidence and analytical science
- Contains case studies that illustrate theory in practice
- Includes contributions from experts on the topics of instrumentation, theory, and case examples
- Explores novel and future applications for analytical techniques
Written for undergraduate and graduate students in forensic chemistry and forensic practitioners and researchers, Analytical Techniques in Forensic Science offers a text that bridges the gap between introductory textbooks and professional level literature.
Preface
List of Contributors
Acknowledgement
Introduction to Forensic Science
1.1 Forensic Science
1.2 The Forensic Process
1.2.1 Forensic Principles and the Crime Scene
1.2.2 Preparatory Issues in Laboratory Analysis
1.2.3 Interpretation of Forensic Evidence
1.3 Judicial Systems
1.3.1 Criminal vs. Civil Law
1.3.2 Adversarial vs. Inquisitorial System
1.3.3 Rules of Evidence
1.3.4 Types of Evidence
1.3.5 Opinion and Expert Testimony
1.4 The Role of Analytical Chemistry in Forensic Science
1.4.1 Techniques used for Chemical Analysis
2. Analytical Methodology and Experimental Design
2.1 Scientific Method
2.2 What Do We Mean By Analysis?
2.3 The Stages of Analysis
2.3.1 Quantification
2.4 Analysis Development
2.4.1 Error Estimation
2.4.2 Quality Assurance and Quality Control
2.4.3 Method Development and Experimental Designs
2.4.4 Selecting Critical Variables with Factorial Designs
2.4.5 Modelling the Significant Variables using Response Surface Designs
3 Presumptive Testing
3.1 Drugs
3.1.1 Drugs seizure sampling
3.1.2 Major drug classes
3.1.3 Presumptive tests for drugs
3.2 Firearms Discharge Residue
3.2.1 Firearms Discharge Residue Sampling
3.2.2 Firearms Discharge Residue Presumptive Tests
3.3 Explosives
3.3.1 Explosive Residue Sampling
3.3.2 Explosive Residue Presumptive Tests
3.4 Ethanol (Ethyl Alcohol)
3.4.1 Breath Alcohol Testing
3.4.2 Saliva-Based Testing
3.5 Ignitable Liquid Residues
3.6 Non-Chemical Presumptive Tests
3.6.1 Electronic Detectors
3.6.2 Canine Detection
4 Sample Preparation
4.1 Sample preparation
4.2 Extraction
4.2.1 Solvent Extraction
4.2.2 Liquid-liquid Extraction
4.2.3 Solid phase Extraction
4.2.4 Solid-phase Microextraction
4.2.5 QuEChERS
4.2.6 Sample Handling Post Extraction
4.3 Sample Preparation for Inorganic Analyses
4.3.1 Total Analysis
4.3.2 Chemical Speciation
4.4 DNA Profiling
4.5 Conclusion
5 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
6 UV-Vis and Fluorescence Spectroscopy
6.1 Forensic Introduction
6.2 Theory
6.2.1 Electronic Transitions
6.2.2 Photoluminescence and Fluorescence
6.2.3 Quantifiation
6.3 Instrumentation
6.3.1 UV-Vis Spectrometers
6.3.2 Fluorescence Spectrometers/Fluorometers
6.3.3 Coupling Techniques
6.3.4 Microspectrophotometers
6.3.5 Hyperspectral Imaging
6.3.6 Filtered Light Examination
6.4 Application to Analyte
6.4.1 Transmission Analysis in Solution
6.4.2 MSP Sample Preparation
6.4.3 Acquiring a Spectrum
6.4.4 Forensic Applications
6.5 Interpretation and Law
6.5.1 Interpreting UV-Vis Spectra
6.5.2 Interpreting Fluorescence Spectra
6.5.3 UV-Vis and Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Court
6.6 Case Studies
6.6.1 Case Study 1
6.6.2 Case Study 2
6.7 Forensic Developments
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Theory of technique
7.2.1 Basis of technique
7.2.2 Instrumentation
7.2.3 Transmission spectroscopy
7.2.4 Reflectance spectroscopy
7.2.5 Infrared microspectroscopy
7.2.6 Handheld and portable instruments
7.3 Application to analyte
7.3.1 Sampling
7.3.2 Spectrum analysis
7.4 Interpretation and law
7.5 Case studies - Discrimination of acrylic fibres
7.6 Forensic developments
8. Raman Spectroscopy
8.1. Forensic introduction
8.2. Theory
8.2.1. Raman Scattering
8.2.2. Modes of Vibration
8.2.3. Raman Shift
8.2.4. Raman instrumentation
8.2.5. Advanced Techniques
8.2.6. Advantages and Disadvantages of Raman Spectroscopy
8.3. Application to analyte
8.3.1. Acquiring a spectrum
8.3.2. Forensic applications
8.4. Interpretation and Law
8.4.1. Interpreting Raman Spectra
8.4.2. Raman spectroscopy in court
8.5. Case Studies
8.5.1. Case Study 1
8.5.2. Case Study 2
8.6. Forensic Developments
9. Scanning Electron Microscopy in Forensic Analysis
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Theory of the technique
9.2.1. Scanning Electron Microscope
9.2.2. X-Ray detection
9.2.3. Operating conditions
9.2.4. Specimen preparation
9.3. Application to analyte(s)
9.3.1. Gunshot Residue
9.3.2. Glass
9.3.3. Other samples
9.4. Interpretation and law
9.4.1. Evidence evaluation on source level
9.5. Case study
9.5.1. GSR – case study
9.5.2. Glass – comparison and classification problem
9.5.3. Glass – was the car bulb switched on during accident?
10 Mass spectrometry in forensic science
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Forensic Application of Mass Spectrometry
10.2 Theory of Technique
10.2.1 Principles of Mass Spectrometry
10.2.2 Sample Introduction
10.2.3 Modes of Sample Ionisation
10.2.4 Ion Separation – Mass Analysers
10.2.5 Ion Detection
10.2.6 Anatomy of a Mass Spectrum
10.3 Application to Analytes
10.4 Interpretation and law – interpretation of results in forensic and legal context
10.4.1 Chain of Custody
10.4.2 New Forensic Regulations
10.4.3 ID criteria – Screen and Confirmation
10.4.4 Chromatographic Criteria
10.4.5 Mass Spectrometric Identification Criteria
10.5 Case studies
10.5.1 Serial Killing by Poisoning
10.5.2 Surreptitious Insulin Administration
10.6 Forensic developments
10.6.1 Beyond Blood and Urine
10.6.2 High Mass Accuracy Mass Spectrometry
10.6.3 Mobile Mass Spectrometers
11 Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry
11.1 Forensic Introduction
11.2 Basis of the Technique
11.2.1 Isotopes
11.2.2 Isotopic Abundance and Delta Notation
11.2.3 Standards and Reference Materials
11.2.4 Isotopic Variability – Fractionation and Mixing
11.2.5 Isotopic Variability of Natural Materials
11.2.6 Instrumentation: Stable Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometers
11.3 Introduction to the Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer
11.3.1 IRMS – Detection and Measurement
11.3.2 Sample Preparation
11.3.3 Bulk Stable Isotope Analysis (BSIA)
11.3.4 Bulk Measurements by Quantitative High Temperature Combustion
11.3.5 Bulk Measurements by Quantitative High Temperature Conversion
11.3.6 Compound Specific Isotope Analysis (CSIA)
11.4 Interpretation
11.5 Case Studies
11.6 Applications in Forensic Science
11.6.1 Distinguishing between Naturally Occurring and synthetic Materials in Doping e.g. Endogenous and Exogenous (Synthetic) Testosterone
11.6.2 Determining Authenticity and Predicting Geographical Origin of Food, Pharmaceuticals and other Materials (e.g. Counterfeiting)
11.6.3 Tracing the Geographic Origin and Movement of Wildlife, Persons and Materials
11.6.4 Identifying the Source of Environmental Contaminants
11.6.5 Determining the Geographical Origin of Plant Materials e.g. Natural Illicit Drugs - Cannabis; Cocaine; and Heroin
11.6.6 Characterising Microorganisms
11.6.7 Determining Synthetic Pathways used to Manufacture Illicit Drugs e.g. Ecstasy and MDMA; Methamphetamine; and Amphetamine
11.6.8 Distinguishing between two or more Samples of a Material to Infer Source or a Common Origin
11.6.9 Distinguishing between two or more Samples of Ignitable Liquids and Chemicals
11.6.10 Determining Source through Association of Starting Materials and End Products e.g. Explosives 34
11.7 Future of IRMS and Stable Isotopic Comparisons 35
12 Chromatographic Separation and Theory
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Chromatography
12.2.1 Planar Chromatography
12.2.2 Column Chromatography
12.3 The Separation Process
12.3.1 Distribution Constant
12.3.2 Hold-up Time (or Volume)
12.3.3 Retention Time (or Volume)
12.3.4 Retention Factor
12.3.5 Separation Factor
12.4 Separation Theory
12.4.1 Plate Theory
12.4.2 Theory versus Rractice: Band Broadening
12.4.3 Rate Theory
12.5 Practical Applications of Chromatographic Theory
12.5.1 Optimising Chromatographic Separations
12.6 Conclusion
13 Gas Chromatography
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Gas Chromatography Components
13.2.1 Mobile Phase System
13.2.2 Sample Injection System
13.2.3 Columns and Chromatographic Separation
13.2.4 Detectors and Detection Systems
13.3 Application to Analyte
13.3.1 Sample Derivatisation
13.3.2 Qualitative Analysis
13.3.3 Quantitative Analysis
13.4 Interpretation and Law
13.5 Case Studies
13.5.1 Case Study 1
13.5.2 Case Study 2
13.6 Forensic Developments
13.6.1 Multidimensional GC
13.6.2 Portable GC
14 High Performance Liquid Chromatography and Ultra-high Performance Liquid Chromatography including LC-MS
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Components of an HPLC instrument and their Optimization
14.2.1 Pump and Mixer
14.2.2 Autosampler and Inlet
14.2.3 Injector
14.2.4 Column
14.2.5 Fittings
14.2.6 Mobile Phase
14.2.7 Effect of Temperature/Flow Rate
14.2.8 Detector
14.3 Related Techniques
14.3.1 Ion Chromatography
14.3.2 Affinity Chromatography
14.3.3 Chiral Chromatography
14.4 Chromatography Theory
14.5 Detection
14.6 Coupling of LC to MS
14.7 Types of Analytes
14.7.1 Basic Analytes
14.7.2 Acidic Analytes
14.7.3 Proteins
14.7.4 DNA
14.7.5 Chiral Compounds
14.7.7 Low-concentration Analytes
14.8 Accreditation and Method Validation
14.8.1 Use of Internal Standards
14.8.2 Effect of Sample Matrix
14.8.3 Ion Ratios
14.9 Interpretation of Results in Forensic and Legal Context
14.10 Case Studies
14.10.1 Case Report 1 - Postmortem Death Investigation – Poly-drug Overdose
14.10.2 Case Report 2 - Postmortem Death Investigation - No Derivatization Needed for LC-MS
14.10.3 Case Report 3 - Driving Under the Influence of Drugs – Increased sensitivity with LC-MS
14.11 Forensic Developments
14.11.1 Column Switching and 2D-HPLC
14.11.2 Capillary LC
14.11.3 Column-on-a chip Technologies
14.12 Conclusion
15 Capillary and Microchip Electrophoresis
15.1 Capillary Electrophoresis: Introduction
15.2 Microchip-Capillary Electrophoresis
15.2.1 Sample Injection Modes in ME
15.3 Detection Systems
15.4 CE and ME in Forensic Analysis
15.5 Case Study: Lab-on-a-chip (LOC) Screening of Methamphetamine and Pseudoephedrine in Clandestine Laboratory Samples
15.5.1 Screening of Methamphetamine and Pseudoephedrine from Clandestine Laboratories
15.5.2 Interferents
15.5.3 Simulated Surface Swabs
15.6 Conclusions
Sue Jickells University of East Anglia.
Shari Forbes University of Quebec Trois Rivieres.
