The second edition of the highly acclaimed Wind Power in Power Systems has been thoroughly revised and expanded to reflect the latest challenges associated with increasing wind power penetration levels. Since its first release, practical experiences with high wind power penetration levels have significantly increased. This book presents an overview of the lessons learned in integrating wind power into power systems and provides an outlook of the relevant issues and solutions to allow even higher wind power penetration levels. This includes the development of standard wind turbine simulation models. This extensive update has 23 brand new chapters in cutting-edge areas including offshore wind farms and storage options, performance validation and certification for grid codes, and the provision of reactive power and voltage control from wind power plants.
Key features:
- Offers an international perspective on integrating a high penetration of wind power into the power system, from basic network interconnection to industry deregulation;
- Outlines the methodology and results of European and North American large-scale grid integration studies;
- Extensive practical experience from wind power and power system experts and transmission systems operators in Germany, Denmark, Spain, UK, Ireland, USA, China and New Zealand;
- Presents various wind turbine designs from the electrical perspective and models for their simulation, and discusses industry standards and world-wide grid codes, along with power quality issues;
- Considers concepts to increase penetration of wind power in power systems, from wind turbine, power plant and power system redesign to smart grid and storage solutions.
Carefully edited for a highly coherent structure, this work remains an essential reference for power system engineers, transmission and distribution network operator and planner, wind turbine designers, wind project developers and wind energy consultants dealing with the integration of wind power into the distribution or transmission network. Up-to-date and comprehensive, it is also useful for graduate students, researchers, regulation authorities, and policy makers who work in the area of wind power and need to understand the relevant power system integration issues.
Table of Contents
Contributors xxxi
Abbreviations xlvii
Notation lvii
1 Introduction 1
Thomas Ackermann
2 Preface: Wind Power Myths Debunked 7
Michael Milligan, Kevin Porter, Edgar DeMeo, Paul Denholm, Hannele Holttinen, Brendan Kirby, Nicholas Miller, Andrew Mills, Mark O’Malley, Matthew Schuerger and Lennart Söder
2.1 Can Grid Operators Deal with the Variability of Wind Power? 7
2.2 Does Wind Power Require Back-up Generation? 8
2.3 Aren’t More CO2 Emissions Generated with Wind Power in Power Systems than Without, Due to Back-up Requirements? 9
2.4 Does Wind Power Require Storage? 9
2.5 Isn’t the Existing Flexibility Already Fully Utilized? 12
2.6 How Often Does the Wind Stop Blowing Everywhere at the Same Time? 13
2.7 To What Extent can Wind Power Production be Predicted? 14
2.8 Is it Expensive to Integrate Wind? 15
2.9 Doesn’t Wind Power Production Require New Transmission, and won’t that Make Wind Expensive? 16
2.10 Does Wind Power have Capacity Credit? 16
2.11 Don’t Wind Power Plants have Low Capacity Factors? 17
2.12 Is Wind Power Generation Cost-competitive with Coal or Nuclear? 17
2.13 Is there a Limit to How Much Wind Generation Capacity can be Accommodated by the Grid? 18
2.14 Summary 19
Acknowledgment 20
References 20
Part A Theoretical Background
3 Historical Development and Current Status of Wind Power 23
Thomas Ackermann
3.1 Introduction 23
3.2 Historical Background 24
3.3 Current Status of Wind Power Worldwide 27
3.4 Status of Wind Turbine Technology 41
3.5 Conclusions 44
Acknowledgments 44
References 44
4 Wind Power in Power Systems: An Introduction 47
Lennart Söder and Thomas Ackermann
4.1 Introduction 47
4.2 Power System History 47
4.3 Current Status of Wind Power in Power Systems 48
4.4 Network Integration Issues for Wind Power 49
4.5 Basic Electrical Engineering 50
4.6 Characteristics of Wind Power Generation 53
4.7 Basic Integration Issues Related to Wind Power 61
4.8 Conclusions 68
Appendix Mechanical Equivalent to Power System Operation with Wind Power 68
A.1 Introduction 69
A.2 Active Power Balance 69
A.3 Synchronous Machines 69
A.4 Asynchronous Machines 69
A.5 Power Electronic Interfaces 70
A.6 Frequency Control 70
A.7 Wind Power 70
A.8 Reactive Power Balance 70
A.9 Asynchronous Machines 71
A.10 Capacitors 71
A.11 Synchronous Machines 71
A.12 Power Electronic Interfaces 71
References 72
5 Generators and Power Electronics for Wind Turbines 73
Anca D. Hansen
5.1 Introduction 73
5.2 State-of-the-Art Technologies 73
5.3 Generator Concepts 90
5.4 Power Electronic Concepts 96
5.5 Power Electronic Solutions in Wind Farms 100
5.6 Conclusions 102
References 102
6 Power System Impacts of Wind Power 105
Hannele Holttinen and Ritva Hirvonen
6.1 Introduction 105
6.2 Operation of the Power System 106
6.3 Wind Power Production and the Power System 110
6.4 Effects of Wind Energy on the Power System 118
6.5 Conclusions 128
References 129
7 The Value of Wind Power 131
Lennart Söder
7.1 Introduction 131
7.2 The Value of a Power Plant 131
7.3 The Value of Wind Power 132
7.4 The Market Value of Wind Power 141
7.5 Conclusions 154
References 155
Part B Technical Regulations and Grid Code Validation
8 Power Quality Standards for Wind Turbines 159
John Olav Tande
8.1 Introduction 159
8.2 Power Quality Characteristics of Wind Turbines 160
8.3 Impact on Voltage Quality 164
8.4 Discussion 171
8.5 Conclusion 172
References 172
9 Measurement of Electrical Characteristics 175
Fritz Santjer
9.1 Introduction 175
9.2 Power Quality Measurement Procedures 176
9.3 Specification 178
9.4 Conclusions 192
References 193
10 Practical Experience with Power Quality and Wind Power 195
Åke Larsson
10.1 Introduction 195
10.2 Voltage Variations 195
10.3 Flicker 197
10.4 Harmonics 203
10.5 Transients 204
10.6 Frequency 206
10.7 Conclusions 207
References 208
11 Technical Regulations for the Interconnection of Wind Power Plants to the Power System 209
Julija Matevosyan, Sigrid M. Bolik and Thomas Ackermann
11.1 Introduction 209
11.2 Overview of Technical Regulations 209
11.3 Comparison of Technical Interconnection Regulations 218
11.4 New Interconnection Requirements at Wind Plant Level 233
11.5 Interconnection Practice 237
11.6 Conclusions 238
References 238
12 Performance Validation and Certification for Grid Codes 241
Martin Schellschmidt, Stephan Adloff and Markus Fischer
12.1 Introduction 241
12.2 History of the Certification Process 242
12.3 Steps of the Unit Certification Process 244
12.4 Steps in the Plant Certification Process 250
12.5 Experience with the Certification Process in Germany 252
12.6 Performance Validation in Canada and Spain 254
12.7 Conclusions 258
References 258
Part C Wind Power Plant and Transmission Issues
13 Electrical Design of a Wind Power Plant 263
Nicholas Miller, Reigh Walling and Richard Piwko
13.1 Introduction 263
13.2 Wind Plant Collection System Design Objectives 263
13.3 Wind Plant Performance Requirements 265
13.4 Economic Evaluation Factors 266
13.5 Collection System Electrical Design 270
13.6 Plant Control and Communication 281
References 292
14 Transmission Systems for Offshore Wind Power Plants and Operation Planning Strategies for Offshore Power Systems 293
Thomas Ackermann, Antje Orths and Krzysztof Rudion
14.1 Introduction 293
14.2 General Electrical Aspects 297
14.3 Transmission System to Shore 301
14.4 From a Cluster Approach to Offshore Transmission Grid: The Kriegers Flak Project 312
14.5 Offshore Grid Systems 312
14.6 New System Solutions for Offshore Wind Power Plants 320
14.7 Alternative Transmission Solutions 322
14.8 Conclusions 322
References 323
15 New Cable Systems for Offshore Wind Power Plants 329
Heinrich Brakelmann and Jan Brüggmann
15.1 Introduction 329
15.2 Technical Background 329
15.3 Power Transmission with Bipolar HVAC Cable Systems 331
15.4 Voltage Definitions and Transformer Groups 332
15.5 Submarine Cable Connections 334
15.6 Examples 337
15.7 HVAC Bipolar Land Cable Systems 340
15.8 Summary 343
References 343
16 New Control Concept for Offshore Wind Power Plants: Constant-Speed Turbines on a Grid with Variable Frequency 345
Eckehard Tröster
16.1 Introduction 345
16.2 Model 346
16.3 Power Limitation 347
16.4 The Park-Variable Concept 347
16.5 Calculating the Energy Yield 353
16.6 Results 354
16.7 Conclusion 358
References 359
Part D International Studies
17 Overview of Integration Studies – Methodologies and Results 363
Hannele Holttinen
17.1 Introduction 363
17.2 Wind Integration Study Set-up and Penetration Level of Wind Power 364
17.3 Methodologies for Wind Integration Studies 366
17.4 Results from Integration Studies 373
17.5 Recommendations 382
17.6 Conclusions and Future Work 383
References 384
18 Two Reference Studies on European Transmission for Wind Integration: TradeWind and EWIS 387
Frans Van Hulle
18.1 Introduction 387
18.2 TradeWind 390
18.3 The European Wind Integration Study EWIS 399
18.4 Future Transmission Needs in Europe from the Studies 408
18.5 Concluding Remarks 410
Acknowledgments 411
References 411
19 Transmission Planning for Wind Energy in the USA: Status and Prospects 413
J. Charles Smith, Dale Osborn, Richard Piwko, Robert Zavadil, Brian Parsons, Lynn Coles, David Hawkins, Warren Lasher and Bradley Nickell
19.1 Introduction 413
19.2 Transmission Planning for Energy Resources 414
19.3 Regional Planning Efforts: Status and Prospects 417
19.4 National Transmission Policy 431
19.5 Summary and Conclusions 435
Acknowledgments 436
References 436
20 Wind Power in Areas with Limited Transmission Capacity 439
Julija Matevosyan
20.1 Introduction 439
20.2 Transmission Limits 440
20.3 Transmission Capacity: Methods of Determination 445
20.4 Measures to Increase Transmission Capacity 447
20.5 Impact of Wind Generation on Available Transmission Capacity 450
20.6 Alternatives to Grid Reinforcement for the Integration of Wind Power 452
20.7 Conclusions 462
References 462
21 Wind Power and Storage 465
Aidan Tuohy and Mark O’Malley
21.1 Introduction 465
21.2 Storage Technologies 465
21.3 Storage for Wind Integration 468
21.4 Studies on Operation of Storage in Systems with High Wind Penetration 473
21.5 Discussion 483
21.6 Conclusions 485
References 485
22 Economic Aspects of Wind Power in Power Systems 489
Poul Erik Morthorst and Thomas Ackermann
22.1 Introduction 489
22.2 Costs for Network Connection and Network Upgrading 489
22.3 System Operation Costs in a Deregulated Market 496
22.4 Example of Nord Pool 500
22.5 Conclusions 515
References 516
Part E Power System Integration Experience
23 Wind Power in the Danish Power System 519
Antje G. Orths and Peter Børre Eriksen
23.1 Introduction 519
23.2 System Overview 521
23.3 Balancing Wind Power in Daily Operation 525
23.5 Conclusions and Lessons Learned 546
References 547
24 Wind Power in the German Network: Present Status and Future Challenges of Maintaining Quality of Supply 549
Matthias Luther and Wilhelm Winter
24.1 Overview 549
24.2 Wind Power Integration in Germany 550
24.3 Wind Power Flow Patterns and Reliable System Operation 553
24.4 Network Planning and Network Security Issues 555
24.6 Requirements to Ensure System Security 562
24.7 Summary: Wind Power in the German Network 566
Acknowledgments 567
References 567
25 Wind Integration in Portugal 569
Ana Estanqueiro
25.1 Introduction 569
25.2 The Portuguese Power System 570
25.3 Planning the Power System for High Wind Penetration 573
25.4 Power System Studies for a Secure Integration of Wind Generation 581
25.5 Operational Experience of Extreme Penetration of Wind Power in Portugal 585
25.6 Synthesis 593
References 593
26 Wind Power Integration Experience in Spain 595
Juan Ma. Rodríguez García, Olivia Alonso García and Miguel de la Torre Rodríguez
26.1 Introduction 595
26.2 Wind Capacity in Spain 597
26.3 Network Arrangements for Wind Power Development 599
26.4 Technical Requirements for Massive Wind Power Integration 602
26.5 Market Arrangements for Wind Power Integration 606
26.6 Operational Arrangements for Wind Power Integration 608
26.7 Future Challenges Associated with Wind Power Integration 617
26.8 Conclusions and Lessons Learned 620
References 621
27 Maximizing Renewable Generation on the Power System of Ireland and Northern Ireland 623
Jonathan O’Sullivan
27.1 Introduction 623
27.2 The Ireland and Northern Ireland Power System 624
27.3 Deregulation and the First European Energy Package 625
27.4 The Development of Renewable Policy 2020 Targets and Beyond 629
27.5 Operational Studies 632
27.6 Impact on the Operation of the Power System 636
27.7 Programme for a Secure, Sustainable Power System 638
27.8 Conclusion 646
References 646
28 Wind Power in the Power System in Texas 649
Henry Durrwachter and Warren Lasher
28.1 Overview 649
28.2 Wind Development in Texas 653
28.3 Wind Integration Issues 656
28.4 Market Impacts 662
28.5 Lessons Learned 663
28.6 Next Steps 664
References 666
29 Wind Power in the New Zealand Power System 667
Ray Brown
29.1 Introduction 667
29.2 Overview of the New Zealand Power System 668
29.3 Overview of Wind Power Installations in New Zealand 672
29.4 Technology Progression 673
29.5 Case Study: West Wind Wind Farm 674
29.6 Case Study: White Hill Wind Farm 680
29.7 Future Challenges and the Next Steps 685
29.8 Conclusion 687
References 688
30 Large-Scale Wind Power Integration into the Chinese Power System 689
Yongning Chi, Zhen Wang, Yan Li and Weisheng Wang
30.1 Introduction 689
30.2 Grid Integration Impact of High Wind Power Penetration 692
30.3 Solutions for the Grid Integration of Large-scale Wind Power 696
30.4 Grid Compliance Testing Technology 702
30.5 Smart Grid and Wind Power in China 704
30.6 Conclusions 705
References 706
31 Isolated Systems with Wind Power 707
E. Ian Baring-Gould and Per Lundsager
31.1 Introduction 707
31.2 Isolated Power Systems 708
31.3 Detailed Overview of Wind–Diesel Power Systems 713
31.4 Systems and Experience 721
31.5 Wind Power Impact on Power Quality 724
31.6 System Modelling Requirements 728
31.7 Issues During the Application of Wind–Diesel Systems 730
31.8 Conclusions and Recommendations 734
References 735
32 Wind Farms in Weak Power Networks in India 739
Poul Sørensen
32.1 Introduction 739
32.2 Network Characteristics 741
32.3 Wind Turbine Characteristics 745
32.4 Wind Turbine Influence on Grids 745
32.5 Grid Influence on Wind Turbines 748
32.6 Conclusions 751
References 751
33 Wind Power Prediction 753
Bernhard Ernst
33.1 Introduction 753
33.2 Forecast Horizons 754
33.3 Principle of Wind Power Prediction Tools 754
33.4 Day-Ahead Prediction 756
33.5 Ensemble Forecast Models/Combination of Forecast Models 757
33.6 Nowcasting and Ramp Forecasting 760
33.7 Forecast Error Evaluation 761
33.8 Lessons Learned during Recent Years 763
33.9 Future Challenges 765
References 765
Part F Dynamic Modelling of Wind Turbines For Power System Studies
34 Introduction to the Modelling of Wind Turbines 769
Hans Knudsen and Jørgen Nygård Nielsen
34.1 Introduction 769
34.2 Basic Considerations Regarding Modelling and Simulations 769
34.3 Overview of Aerodynamic Modelling 770
34.4 Basic Modelling Block Description of Wind Turbines 777
34.5 Per Unit Systems and Data for the Mechanical System 784
34.6 Different Types of Simulations and Requirements for Accuracy 788
34.7 Conclusions 796
References 796
35 A Generic Wind Power Plant Model 799
Abraham Ellis, Yuriy Kazachkov, Juan Sanchez-Gasca, Pouyan Pourbeik, Eduard Muljadi, Michael Behnke, Jens Fortmann and Slavomir Seman
35.1 Introduction 799
35.2 Power Flow Representation and Equivalencing 800
35.3 WECC Generic Dynamic Models 802
35.4 Generic Model Validation 812
35.5 Known Issues and Areas of Improvement 817
35.6 Outlook 819
References 819
36 Reduced-Order Modelling of Wind Turbines 821
Katherine Elkington, J.G. (Han) Slootweg, Mehrdad Ghandhari and Wil L. Kling
36.1 Introduction 821
36.2 Power System Dynamics Simulation 821
36.3 Current Wind Turbine Types 822
36.4 Modelling Assumptions 823
36.5 Model of a Constant-Speed Wind Turbine 824
36.6 Model of a Wind Turbine with a Doubly Fed Induction Generator 832
36.7 Model of a Wind Turbine with a Synchronous Generator 840
36.8 Model Response 845
36.9 Conclusions 845
References 845
37 High-Order Models of Doubly Fed Induction Generators 849
Eva Centeno López and Jonas Persson
37.1 Introduction 849
37.2 Advantages of Using a Doubly Fed Induction Generator 850
37.3 The Components of a Doubly Fed Induction Generator 850
37.4 Machine Equations 851
37.5 Voltage-Source Converter 859
37.6 Sequencer 861
37.7 Simulation of the Doubly Fed Induction Generator 861
37.8 Reducing the Order of the Doubly Fed Induction Generator 862
37.9 Conclusions 863
References 864
38 Full-Scale Verification of Dynamic Wind Turbine Models 865
Vladislav Akhmatov
38.1 Introduction 865
38.2 General Validation Procedure 866
38.3 Measured Parameters and Conversion 868
38.4 Validation Types 871
38.5 Further Validation Specifications 887
38.6 Conclusions 888
References 889
39 Impacts of Wind Power on Power System Stability 891
Eknath Vittal, Andrew Keane, J.G. Slootweg and Wil Kling
39.1 Power System Stability and Security 891
39.2 Rotor Angle Stability 892
39.3 Voltage Stability 897
39.4 Frequency Stability 906
39.5 Dynamic Behaviour of Wind Power Plants 909
39.6 Conclusions 911
References 911
40 Modelling of Large Wind Power Plants 913
Vladislav Akhmatov and Björn Andresen
40.1 Introduction 913
40.2 Detailed Modelling and Short-Term Stability 915
40.3 Aggregated Modelling and Fault Ride-Through 921
40.4 Wind Power Plant Controllers 926
40.5 Conclusions 931
References 932
Part G Future Issues
41 Benefits of Active Management of Distribution Systems 937
Goran Strbac, Predrag Djapić, Thomas Bopp and Nick Jenkins
41.1 Background 937
41.2 Active Management 938
41.3 Quantifying the Benefits of Active Management 941
41.4 Conclusions 949
References 950
42 Wind Power and the Smart Grid 951
J.G. Slootweg and Thomas Ackermann
42.1 Introduction 951
42.2 (Trying to) Define Smart Grids 952
42.3 Why ‘Smarten’ the Grid? And Why Now (or Why Not)? 955
42.4 Goals and Concepts 957
42.5 Wind Power and Smart Grids 962
42.6 Practical Application: The Danish Cell Controller Pilot Project 966
42.7 Conclusions 971
Acknowledgments 972
References 972
43 Reactive Power Capability and Voltage Control with Wind Turbines 975
Volker Diedrichs, Alfred Beekmann and Marcel Kruse
43.1 Relevance and Design Paradigm 975
43.2 Reactive Power Capability of a Wind Turbine 979
43.3 Model-Based Design of Voltage Control Systems for Wind Power Plants 982
43.4 Performance Demonstration, Model Validation and Contingency Tests 988
43.5 Voltage Control of Medium-Voltage Network 989
Reference 997
44 Hydrogen as a Means of Transporting and Balancing Wind Power Production 999
Robert Steinberger-Wilckens
44.1 Introduction 999
44.2 A Brief Introduction to Hydrogen 1000
44.3 Technology and Efficiency 1001
44.4 Reconversion to Electricity: Fuel Cells 1004
44.5 The Potential of Hydrogen in Wind Energy Storage 1006
44.6 Hydrogen Applications for Wind Energy Storage 1008
44.7 A Blueprint for a Hydrogen Distribution System 1012
44.8 Conclusions 1016
Acknowledgments 1016
References 1017
Index 1019
