The editor and authors, all pioneers and experts with extensive research experience in the field, firstly introduce the synthesis and optical properties of various conjugated polymers, highlighting how to make organic soluble polymers compatible with the aqueous environment. This is followed by the application of these materials in optical sensing and imaging as well as the emerging applications in image-guided therapy and in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.
The result is a consolidated overview for polymer chemists, materials scientists, biochemists, biotechnologists, and bioengineers.
Table of Contents
Preface xi
1 Strategies to Bring Conjugated Polymers into Aqueous Media 1
Jie Liu and Bin Liu
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Synthesis of CPEs 2
1.2.1 Anionic CPEs 4
1.2.1.1 Sulfonated CPEs 4
1.2.1.2 Carboxylated CPEs 8
1.2.1.3 Phosphonated CPEs 13
1.2.2 Cationic CPEs 14
1.2.2.1 Ammonium CPEs 14
1.2.2.2 Pyridinium CPEs 20
1.2.2.3 Phosphonium CPEs 21
1.2.3 Zwitterionic CPEs 21
1.3 Neutral WSCPs 23
1.4 Fabrication of CPNPs 25
1.4.1 Reprecipitation 26
1.4.2 Miniemulsion 26
1.4.3 Nanoprecipitation 28
1.5 Conclusion 30
References 30
2 Direct Synthesis of Conjugated Polymer Nanoparticles 35
Sibel Ciftci and Alexander J. C. Kuehne
2.1 Introduction 35
2.2 Generation of CPNs 39
2.2.1 Postpolymerization Techniques 39
2.2.1.1 Nanoprecipitation 39
2.2.1.2 Miniemulsification 41
2.2.1.3 Microfluidics 42
2.2.1.4 SelfÂ]Assembly 45
2.2.2 Direct Polymerization in Heterogeneous Systems 45
2.2.2.1 Emulsion Polymerization 46
2.2.2.2 Polymerization in Miniemulsion 48
2.2.2.3 Polymerization in Microemulsion 49
2.2.2.4 Dispersion Polymerization 50
2.3 Conclusion 53
References 53
3 Conjugated Polymer Nanoparticles and Semiconducting Polymer Dots for Molecular Sensing and In Vivo and Cellular Imaging 59
Xu Wu and Daniel T. Chiu
3.1 Introduction 59
3.2 Preparation, Characterization, and Functionalization 60
3.2.1 Preparation 60
3.2.2 Characterization 61
3.2.3 Functionalization 62
3.3 Molecular Sensing 65
3.3.1 MetalÂ]Ion Sensing 65
3.3.2 Oxygen and Reactive Oxygen Species Detection 66
3.3.3 pH and Temperature Monitoring 69
3.3.4 Sensing of Other Molecules 71
3.4 Cellular Imaging 74
3.4.1 Fluorescence Imaging 74
3.4.1.1 In Vitro Imaging 74
3.4.1.2 In Vivo Imaging 76
3.4.2 Photoacoustic Imaging 77
3.4.3 Multimodality Imaging 77
3.5 Conclusion 80
Acknowledgment 81
References 81
4 Conjugated Polymers for In Vivo Fluorescence Imaging 87
Jun Li and Dan Ding
4.1 Introduction 87
4.2 In Vivo Fluorescence Imaging of Tumors 88
4.3 StimuliÂ]Responsive Fluorescence Imaging 92
4.4 In Vivo Fluorescence Cell Tracking 95
4.5 TwoÂ]Photon Excited Brain Vascular Imaging 98
4.6 DualÂ]Modality Imaging of Tumors In Vivo 99
4.7 Other In Vivo Fluorescence Imaging Applications 101
4.8 Conclusions and Perspectives 103
References 103
5 π-Conjugated/Semiconducting Polymer Nanoparticles for Photoacoustic Imaging 111
Chen Xie and Kanyi Pu
5.1 Introduction 111
5.2 Mechanism of PA Imaging 112
5.3 SPNs for PA Imaging 114
5.3.1 Preparation of SPNs 114
5.3.2 PA Imaging of Brain Vasculature 116
5.3.3 PA Imaging of Tumor 119
5.3.4 PA Imaging of Lymph Nodes 123
5.3.5 PA Imaging of ROS 125
5.3.6 Multimodal Imaging 125
5.4 Summary and Outlook 127
References 129
6 Conjugated Polymers for TwoÂ]Photon Live Cell Imaging 135
Shuang Li, XiaoÂ]Fang Jiang, and QingÂ]Hua Xu
6.1 Introduction 135
6.2 Conjugated Polymers and CPNs as OneÂ]Photon Excitation Imaging Contrast Agents 138
6.3 Conjugated Polymers as 2PEM Contrast Agents 140
6.4 ConjugatedÂ]PolymerÂ]Based Nanoparticles (CPNs) as 2PEM Contrast Agents 146
6.4.1 CPNs Prepared from Hydrophobic Conjugated Polymers 146
6.4.2 CPNs Prepared from Conjugated Polyelectrolytes (CPEs) 150
6.4.3 CPNs Prepared by Hybrid Materials 152
6.5 Conclusions and Outlook 158
References 160
7 WaterÂ]Soluble Conjugated Polymers for Sensing and Imaging Applications 171
Xingfen Liu, Wei Huang, and Quli Fan
7.1 Introduction 171
7.2 Conjugated Polymers for Sensing 172
7.2.1 Sensing Based on FRET 172
7.2.1.1 OneÂ]Step FRET 172
7.2.1.2 TwoÂ]Step FRET 177
7.2.2 Sensing Based on Superquenching of CPs 178
7.2.2.1 AnalytesÂ]Induced Quenching 178
7.2.2.2 Gold NanoparticlesÂ]Induced Superquenching 180
7.2.2.3 Graphene OxideÂ]Induced Superquenching 183
7.2.3 Sensing Based on Conformation Conversion 183
7.2.4 Sensing Based on Aggregation of Conjugated Polymers 185
7.3 Imaging of Conjugated Polymers 186
7.3.1 SingleÂ]Modal Imaging 188
7.3.1.1 Fluorescence Imaging 188
7.3.1.2 FarÂ]Red and NIR Imaging 190
7.3.1.3 TwoÂ]Photon Imaging 193
7.3.1.4 Multicolor Imaging 196
7.3.2 MultiModal Imaging 201
7.3.2.1 MRI/Fluorescence Imaging 201
7.3.2.2 Fluorescence/DarkÂ]Field Imaging 206
7.3.2.3 MRI/Photoacoustic Imaging 209
7.4 Challenges and Outlook 209
References 210
8 Conjugated Polymers for Gene Delivery 215
Joong Ho Moon and Kenry
8.1 Introduction 215
8.2 Fundamental Properties of Conjugated Polymers 216
8.3 Intracellular Targeting, Cytotoxicity, and Biodegradability of Conjugated Polymers 218
8.4 Plasmid DNA (pDNA) Delivery 222
8.5 Small Interfering RNA (siRNA) Delivery 226
8.6 Conclusions and Outlook 232
References 234
9 Conductive PolymerÂ]Based Functional Structures for Neural Therapeutic Applications 243
Kenry and Bin Liu
9.1 Introduction 243
9.2 Conductive PolymerÂ]Based Functional Structures 244
9.2.1 Conductive Polymers 244
9.2.2 Conductive PolymerÂ]Based Hydrogels 249
9.2.3 Conductive PolymerÂ]Based Nanofibers 250
9.3 Synthesis and Functionalization of Conductive PolymerÂ]Based Functional Structures 251
9.3.1 Synthesis and Doping of Conductive Polymers 251
9.3.2 Fabrication of Electroconductive Hydrogels 252
9.3.3 Electrospinning of Conductive PolymerÂ]Based Nanofibers 253
9.3.4 Functionalization and Modification of Conductive PolymerÂ]Based Functional Structures 254
9.4 Applications of Conductive PolymerÂ]Based Functional Structures for Neural Therapies 255
9.4.1 Electrostimulated Drug Delivery 255
9.4.2 Neural Cell and Tissue Scaffolds for Neural Regeneration 257
9.4.3 Implantable Biosensors and Neural Prostheses 258
9.5 Summary and Outlook 260
References 261
10 Conjugated Polymers for Photodynamic Therapy 269
Thangaraj Senthilkumar and Shu Wang
10.1 Introduction 269
10.1.1 Photodynamic Therapy – Concept and History 269
10.1.2 Outline of the PDT Process 269
10.1.3 Role of Conjugated Polymers in PDT 271
10.1.4 Photochemistry Behind the PDT Process 271
10.1.5 Design Aspects of Effective PDT 272
10.2 Conjugated Polymers as Photosensitizers 274
10.2.1 FarÂ]Red/NearÂ]IR Emitting CP as Photosensitizers 274
10.2.2 CP as Energy Transfer Systems to Photosensitizing Dyes 274
10.2.3 Hybrid Photosensitizers based on CP 277
10.3 Applications of CPÂ]Based Photodynamic Therapy 277
10.3.1 Antimicroorganism Activity 277
10.3.2 Antitumor Therapy 285
10.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 291
References 291
11 Conjugated Polymers for NearÂ]Infrared Photothermal Therapy of Cancer 295
Ligeng Xu, Xuejiao Song, and Zhuang Liu
11.1 Introduction 295
11.2 Conjugated Polymers for Cancer Photothermal Therapy 295
11.2.1 Polyaniline (PANI) Nanoparticles 296
11.2.2 Polypyrrole (PPy) Nanoparticles 297
11.2.3 PEDOT:PSS–PEG Nanoparticles 298
11.2.4 Donor–Acceptor (D–A) Conjugated Polymers 299
11.3 Imaging Guided Photothermal Therapy 301
11.4 Conjugated Polymers for Combination Cancer Treatment 306
11.4.1 Combined Photodynamic and Photothermal Therapy 307
11.4.2 Combined Photothermal Chemotherapy 309
11.5 Outlook and Perspectives 312
References 316
12 Conjugated Polymers for Disease Diagnosis and Theranostics Medicine 321
Akhtar Hussain Malik, Sameer Hussain, Sayan Roy Chowdhury, and Parameswar Krishnan Iyer
12.1 Introduction 321
12.2 Disease Diagnostics via Conjugated Polymers 322
12.2.1 Detection of Pathogens (E. coli, C. albicans, B. subtilis) 322
12.2.2 Detection of Cancer Biomarkers (DNA Methylation, miRNAs, Hyaluronidase, Spermine) 327
12.2.2.1 DNA Methylation 329
12.2.2.2 MicroRNAs (miRNA) Detection 333
12.2.2.3 Hyaluronidase (HAase) Detection 335
12.2.2.4 Spermine Detection 335
12.2.3 Detection of Other Important Biomarkers
(Acid Phosphatase, Bilirubin) 337
12.2.3.1 Acid Phosphatase (ACP) Detection 337
12.2.3.2 Bilirubin Detection 338
12.3 Conjugated Polymers for Cancer Theranostics 340
12.3.1 Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) 340
12.3.2 Photothermal Therapy (PTT) 342
12.4 Studying Neurodegenerative Disorders 345
12.4.1 Diagnostics via Conjugated Polymers 345
12.4.2 Therapeutic Strategies to Prevent Neurodegenerative Disorders 351
References 355
13 PolymerÂ]Grafted Conjugated Polymers as Functional Biointerfaces 359
Alissa J. Hackett, Lisa T. Strover, Paul Baek, Jenny Malmström, and Jadranka TravasÂ]Sejdic
13.1 Introduction 359
13.2 Methods of Functionalizing CPs 361
13.2.1 Biodopants 361
13.2.2 Biomolecule Attachment 361
13.2.3 Copolymers and Polymer Blends 361
13.3 CPÂ]Based Polymer Brushes as Biointerfaces: Rationale and Applications 362
13.3.1 Antifouling 362
13.3.2 Biosensing 365
13.3.3 Tissue Engineering 366
13.3.4 StimuliÂ]Responsive Materials 367
13.3.5 Emerging Bioelectronics Materials Based on Grafted CPs 372
13.4 Synthesis of CPÂ]Based Graft Copolymer Brushes 372
13.4.1 Grafted CPs: Synthesis by “Grafting Through” Approach 374
13.4.2 Grafted CPs: Synthesis by “Grafting To” Approach 377
13.4.3 Grafted CPs: Synthesis by “Grafting From” Approach 378
13.5 Conclusions and Outlook 385
References 387
Index 403
