The past ten years have seen an explosion of useful research surrounding human motivation and emotion; new insights allow researchers to answer the perennial questions, including "What do people want?" and "Why do they want what they want?" By delving into the roots of motivation, the emotional processes at work, and the impacts on learning, performance, and well-being, the seventh edition of Understanding Motivation and Emotion provides a toolbox of practical interventions and approaches for use in a wide variety of settings.
Table of Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 Introduction
What Is Motivation? Why Is It Important?
Motivational Science
Two Perennial Questions
What Causes Behavior?
Why Does Behavior Vary in Its Intensity?
Subject Matter
Internal Motives
External Events and Social Contexts
Motivation versus Influence
Expressions of Motivation
Behavior
Engagement
Psychophysiology
Brain Activations
Self-Report
Framework to Understand Motivation and Emotion
Ten Unifying Themes
Motivation and Emotion Benefit Adaptation and Functioning
Motivation and Emotion Direct Attention
Motivation and Emotion Are “Intervening Variables”
Motives Vary Over Time and Contribute into the Ongoing Stream of Behavior
Types of Motivations Exist
We Are Not Always Consciously Aware of the Motivational Basis of Our Behavior
Motivation Study Reveals What People Want
To Flourish, Motivation Needs Supportive Conditions
When Trying to Motivate Others, What Is Easy to Do Is Rarely What Works
There Is Nothing So Practical as a Good Theory
Summary
Chapter 2 Motivation and Emotion in Historical Perspective
Philosophical Origins of Motivational Concepts
Grand Theories
Will
Instinct
Drive
Rise of the Mini-Theories
Active Nature of the Person
Cognitive Revolution
Socially Relevant Questions
Contemporary Era
The 1990s Reemergence of Motivation Study
Brief History of Emotion Study
Conclusion
Summary
Readings for Further Study
Chapter 3 The Motivated and Emotional Brain
Motivation, Emotion, and Neuroscience
Day-to-Day Events Activate Specific Brain Structures
Activated Brain Structures Generate Specific Motivations and Emotions
Neural Basis of Motivation and Emotion
Cortical Brain
Subcortical Brain
Bidirectional Communication
Individual Brain Structures Involved in Motivation and Emotion
Subcortical Brain Structures
Cortical Brain Structures
Hormones
Summary
Readings for Further Study
Part I Needs
Chapter 4 Physiological Needs
Need
Three Types of Needs
Fundamentals of Regulation
Physiological Need
Psychological Drive
Homeostasis
Negative Feedback
Multiple Inputs/Multiple Outputs
Intraorganismic Mechanisms
Extraorganismic Mechanisms
Homeostatic Mechanism
Thirst
Physiological Regulation
Environmental Influences
Hunger
Short-Term Appetite
Long-Term Energy Balance
Environmental Influences
Self-Regulatory Influences
Weight Gain and Obesity
Comprehensive Model of Hunger
Sex
Physiological Regulation
Facial Metrics
Sexual Scripts
Sexual Orientation
Evolutionary Basis of Sexual Motivation
Summary
Readings for Further Study
Chapter 5 Extrinsic Motivation and Internalization
Extrinsic Motivation
Incentives and Consequences
Incentives
Reinforcers
Managing Behavior
Consequences
Hidden Costs of Reward
Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation versus Extrinsic Motivation
Expected and Tangible Rewards
Implications
Benefits of Extrinsic Motivation
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Two Examples of Controlling and Informational Events
Types of Extrinsic Motivation
External Regulation
Introjected Regulation
Identified Regulation
Integrated Regulation
Internalization and Integration
Motivating Others on Uninteresting Activities
Amotivation
Summary
Readings for Further Study
Chapter 6 Psychological Needs
Psychological Needs
Organismic Psychological Needs
Benefits of Need Satisfaction
Need Frustration
Autonomy
Supporting Autonomy
The Conundrum of Choice
Benefits from Autonomy Support
Giving and Receiving Autonomy Support
Competence
Optimal Challenge
Flow
Structure
Failure Tolerance
Relatedness
Involving Relatedness
Satisfying Relatedness
Supporting Relatedness
Communal and Exchange Relationships
Benefits from Relatedness Need Satisfaction
Putting it All Together: Relationships and Social Contexts that Support Psychological Need
Satisfaction
Engagement
What Makes for a Good Day?
Vitality
Summary
Readings for Further Study
Chapter 7 Implicit Motives
Implicit Motives
Acquired Needs
Social Needs
How Implicit Motives, as Acquired Psychological Needs, Motivate Behavior
Achievement
Origins of the Need for Achievement
Atkinson’s Model
Achievement for the Future
Dynamics-of-Action Model
Conditions That Involve and Satisfy the Need for Achievement
Affiliation
Duality of Affiliation Motivation
Conditions That Involve the Affiliation and Intimacy Duality
Conditions That Satisfy the Affiliation Need
Power
Conditions That Involve and Satisfy the Need for Power
Goal Pursuit and Perspective Taking
Is the Implicit Power Motive Bad?
Leadership Motive Pattern
Compassionate Leadership Profile
Four Additional Social Needs
Summary
Readings for Further Study
Part II Cognitions
Chapter 8 Goal Setting and Goal Striving
Cognitive Springs to Action
Plans
Corrective Motivation
Discrepancy
Discrepancy, Emotions, and Feelings
Two Types of Discrepancy
Goal Setting
Goal–Performance Discrepancy
Difficult, Specific, and Congruent Goals Enhance Performance
Feedback
Criticisms
Long-Term Goal Setting
From Where Do Goals Come?
Goal Striving
Mental Simulations
Implementation Intentions
Goal Disengagement
Summary
Readings for Further Study
Chapter 9 Mindsets
Mindset
Mindset 1: Deliberative–Implemental
Deliberative Mindset
Implemental Mindset
Downstream Consequences of the Deliberative and Implemental Mindsets
Mindset 2: Promotion–Prevention
Promotion Mindset
Prevention Mindset
Different Definitions of Success and Failure
Different Goal-Striving Strategies
Ideal Self-Guides and Ought Self-Guides
Regulatory Fit Predicts Strength of Motivation and Well-Being
Mindset 3: Growth-Fixed
Fixed Mindset
Growth Mindset
Meaning of Effort
Origins of Fixed-Growth Mindsets
Different Fixed-Growth Mindsets Lead to Different Achievement Goals
Achievement Goals
Cognitive Dissonance
Dissonance-Arousing Situations
Motivational Processes Underlying Cognitive Dissonance
Self-Perception Theory
Summary
Readings for Further Study
Chapter 10 Personal Control Beliefs
Motivation to Exercise Personal Control
Two Kinds of Expectancy
Perceived Control: Self, Action, and Control
Coping with Failure
Self-Efficacy
Sources of Self-Efficacy
Self-Efficacy Effects on Behavior
Empowerment
Empowering People: Mastery Modeling Program
Mastery Beliefs
Ways of Coping
Mastery versus Helplessness
Learned Helplessness
Learning Helplessness
Application to Humans
Components
Helplessness Effects
Helplessness and Depression
Attributions and Explanatory Style
Reactance Theory
Expectancy–Value Model
Value
Value Interventions
Summary
Readings for Further Study
Chapter 11 The Self and Its Strivings
Two Views of Self
Self-as-Object
Self-as-Agent
The Problem with Self-Esteem
Self-Concept
Self-Schemas
Motivational Properties of Self-Schemas
Consistent Self
Self-Verification versus Self-Concept Change
Why People Self-Verify
Possible Selves
Identity
Roles
Connections to Social Groups
Situations Make Specific Identities Salient
Agency
Self as Action and Development from Within
True Self?
Self-Concordance
Intrinsic Goals and Extrinsic Goals
Self-Regulation
Forethought through Reflection
Developing More Competent Self-Regulation
Self-Control
Is the Capacity to Exert Self-Control Beneficial to a Successful Life?
Summary
Readings for Further Study
Part III Emotions
Chapter 12 Nature of Emotion: Six Perennial Questions
Six Perennial Questions
What is an Emotion?
Definition
Relation between Emotion and Motivation
What Causes an Emotion?
Two-Systems View
Chicken-and-Egg
What Ends an Emotion?
How Many Emotions are There?
Biological Perspective
Cognitive Perspective
Reconciliation of the Numbers Issue
What Good are the Emotions?
Coping Functions
Social Functions
Why We Have Emotions
Can We Control Our Emotions?
Emotion Regulation Strategies
What is the Difference Between Emotion and Mood?
Everyday Mood
Positive Affect
Summary
Readings for Further Study
Chapter 13 Aspects of Emotion
Biological Aspects of Emotion
James–Lange Theory
Contemporary Perspective
Brain Activity Activates Individual Emotions
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
Cognitive Aspects of Emotion
Appraisal
Complex Appraisal
Appraisal as a Process
Emotion Differentiation
Emotion Knowledge
Attributions
Emotions Affect Cognition
Social Aspects of Emotion
Social Interaction
Social Sharing of Emotion
Summary
Readings for Further Study
Chapter 14 Individual Emotions
Basic Emotions
Fear
Anger
Disgust
Contempt
Sadness
Emotional Preparation for Threat and Harm
Joy
Interest
Emotional Preparation for Motive Involvement and Satisfaction
Self-Conscious Emotions
Shame
Guilt
Embarrassment
Pride
Triumph
Interrelations among Shame, Guilt, Embarrassment, Pride, and Hubris
Cognitively Complex Emotions
Envy
Gratitude
Disappointment and Regret
Hope
Schadenfreude
Empathy
Compassion
Summary
Readings for Further Study
Part IV Applied Concerns
Chapter 15 Growth Motivation and Positive Psychology
Holism and Positive Psychology
Holism
Positive Psychology
Self-Actualization
Hierarchy of Human Needs
Encouraging Growth
Actualizing Tendency
Organismic Valuing Process
Emergence of the Self
Conditions of Worth
Conditional Regard as a Socialization Strategy
Fully Functioning Individual
Organismic Integration
Humanistic Motivational Phenomena
Causality Orientations
Growth-Seeking versus Validation Seeking
Relationships
Freedom to Learn
Self-Definition and Social Definition
Problem of Evil
Positive Psychology
Happiness and Well-Being
Eudaimonic Well-Being
Optimism
Meaning
Positivity
Mindfulness
Interventions
Cultivating Hope
Cultivating Compassion
Criticisms
Summary
Readings for Further Study
Chapter 16 Unconscious Motivation
Psychodynamic Perspective
Psychoanalytic Becomes Psychodynamic
Dual-Instinct Theory
Do the Id and Ego Actually Exist?
Contemporary Psychodynamic Theory
The Unconscious
Freudian Unconscious
Adaptive Unconscious
Implicit Motivation
Priming
Psychodynamics
Repression
Suppression
Terror Management Theory
Ego Psychology
Ego Development
Ego Defense
Ego Effectance
Object Relations Theory
Criticisms
Summary
Readings for Further Study
Chapter 17 Interventions
Applying Principles of Motivation and Emotion
Explaining Motivation and Emotion
Predicting Motivation and Emotion
Solving Motivational and Emotional Problems
Practice Problems
Three State-of-the-Art Interventions
Preface
Intervention 1: Satisfying Psychological Needs
Intervention 2: Increasing a Growth Mindset
Intervention 3: Promoting Emotion Knowledge
Wisdom Gained from a Scientific Study of Motivation and Emotion
References
Author Index
Subject Index
