Written by a group of the most experienced and well-known environmental engineers in the world, from a unique perspective, this volume explores the hot-button issue of climate change, its causes, and the future of the planet.
Climate change is one of the most controversial and argued issues in the world today, and it has been for years. It has been politicized by politicians on all sides, some scientists have used the study of it for their own material gain above true scientific discovery, and some scientific theories surrounding it have been believed even though proven false. But there is not, by any means, complete agreement among all scientists throughout the world on this issue.
Written by two of the world's most well-respected environmental and petroleum engineers, this book is meant to be one voice in the scientific literature on this important subject. Other books, also available from Wiley-Scrivener, take the opposite stance, but it is important, in our scientific journey, to listen to all voices and rely on facts, rather than opinions. We trust the reader to make his or her decisions based on all of the facts, and not just some of them.
Table of Contents
Introduction xv
Acknowledgments xix
Part I: Climatic Paradox 1
1 Climatic Paradox 3
Historic Temperatures of Early Earth 3
Concepts by Some of Global Warming 5
Earth’s Historic Temperature Charts 6
Misuse of Temperature Charts 7
Use of Paleoclimatology to Estimate Prehistoric Temperatures 8
Use of the Oxygen Isotope Ratio to Estimate Historic Temperatures 9
Historic Temperature Charts for the Past 4.6 BY 10
Glacial Periods and Interglacial Periods (4.5 to 0.540 BY AGO) 10
Historic Temperature Record of the Past 540 MY 11
Today’s Temperature Charts 16
The Sun - a Primary Source of Energy 17
Physical Aspects of the Sun 18
Sunspots 18
Solar Irradiation Reaching the Earth 20
The Sun’s Energy 23
Energy Received by the Earth from the Sun 26
The Paradox Reviewed 27
2 Adiabatic Theory 29
Troposphere 29
How is Heat Transferred in the Troposphere? 31
Modeling the Earth’s Troposphere 33
Features of the Earth’s Atmosphere 33
Development of an Adiabatic Equation 35
Development of the Adiabatic Equation 37
Earth’s Troposphere Model 41
Effect of Precession Angle 42
Application of Adiabatic Equation to the Planet Venus 47
3 The Earth’s Synoptic Activities 51
Greenhouse Effect Adiabatic Theory 51
Model of Heat Transfer in the Troposphere 52
Part II: Development of the Hydrosphere 59
4 Development of Earth’s Hydrosphere 61
Hydrosphere of the Primordial Earth 61
Formation of the Hydrosphere 66
Part III: Development of the Earth’s Atmosphere 79
5 Earth’s Historic Atmospheres 81
Earth’s Primordial Atmosphere 81
Earth’s First Atmosphere (Hadean time - 4.56 to 4.0 BY ago) 83
Earth’s Second Atmosphere (Archean time, 4.0 to 2.5 BY ago) 85
Earth’s Third Atmosphere (Proterozoic to mid-Phanerozoic time - 2.5 to 0.54 BY ago) 86
Today’s Atmosphere (Phanerozoic time, 0.542 BY ago to today) 89
The Earth’s Future Atmosphere 89
6 Nitrogen in Earth’s Atmosphere 91
Origin of Earth’s Atmospheric Nitrogen 91
Estimate of the Earth’s Volume of Organic-Nitrogen Sediments 95
7 Development of Free Oxygen in Earth’s Atmosphere 99
Oxygen 99
History of Free Oxygen in Earth’s Atmosphere 100
8 Development of Methane in Earth’s Atmosphere 111
Methane the Gas 111
Historic Levels of Methane in the Earth’s Atmosphere 114
Monitoring of Methane Gas Emissions 126
9 The Effect of the Greenhouse Gases 129
The Greenhouse Gases 129
The Classic Greenhouse Effect 130
The Greenhouse Gases 131
Understanding the Greenhouse Effect 134
The Greenhouse Effect 135
Effect of the Precession Angle 138
Convective Heat Transsphere in Troposphere 140
Effect of Water Vapor on Heat Transfer 140
Effect of Carbon Dioxide on Temperature Distribution 141
The Effect of Carbon Dioxide Anthropogenic Emissions 143
10 Development of Carbon Dioxide in Earth’s Atmosphere 147
Carbon Dioxide 147
Sources of Carbon Dioxide 148
The Carbon Cycle 148
Mass of Carbon in the Earth’s Crust 151
Mass of Carbon in the Earth’s Mantle 151
Historic Content of Carbon Dioxide in the Earth’s Atmosphere 155
Earth’s Hadean Atmosphere (4.56 to 4.0 BY ago) 155
Earth’s Archaean Atmosphere (4.0 to 2.4 BY ago) 156
Earth’s Proterozoic and Phanerozoic Atmosphere (2.4 BY ago to today) 159
Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere 163
Historic Effect of Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide 168
11 Ozone in the Earth’s Atmosphere 173
Properties of Ozone 173
Ozone Layer as the “Earth’s Shield” 174
Atmospheric Gases Ability to Absorb Energy 175
The Ozone Hole 184
Ozone - Methane Reaction 188
Concluding Remarks 189
12 Evolution of Atmospheric Composition and Pressure 191
Partial Pressure of Atmospheric Gases 191
Part IV: Various Factors Affecting the Evolution of the Earth’s Climate 197
13 Earth’s Orbital Distance from the Sun 199
Effect of Gravity on Earth’s Orbital Paths 199
Earth’s Orbital Path About the Sun 200
Kepler’s Laws Pertaining to Planetary Orbits 202
Eccentricity of an Object’s Orbit 205
Effect of Other Planets on Earth’s orbit 206
The Effect of the Planet Jupiter on Earth’s Orbital Path 212
14 Climatalogical Effect of Continental Drift 223
Continental Drift’s Effect on the Earth’s Precession Angle 223
Latitudinal Temperature Contrast on Earth’s Surface 228
15 Earth’s Future Climate 235
Conclusions 239
References and Bibliography 241
Author Index 271
Subject Index 275
