Provides a Comprehensive Introduction to Aircraft Design with an Industrial Approach
This book introduces readers to aircraft design, placing great emphasis on industrial practice. It includes worked out design examples for several different classes of aircraft, including Learjet 45, Tucano Turboprop Trainer, BAe Hawk and Airbus A320. It considers performance substantiation and compliance to certification requirements and market specifications of take-off/landing field lengths, initial climb/high speed cruise, turning capability and payload/range. Military requirements are discussed, covering some aspects of combat, as is operating cost estimation methodology, safety considerations, environmental issues, flight deck layout, avionics and more general aircraft systems. The book also includes a chapter on electric aircraft design along with a full range of industry standard aircraft sizing analyses.
Split into two parts, Conceptual Aircraft Design: An Industrial Approach spends the first part dealing with the pre-requisite information for configuring aircraft so that readers can make informed decisions when designing vessels. The second part devotes itself to new aircraft concept definition. It also offers additional analyses and design information (e.g., on cost, manufacture, systems, role of CFD, etc.) integral to conceptual design study. The book finishes with an introduction to electric aircraft and futuristic design concepts currently under study.
- Presents an informative, industrial approach to aircraft design
- Features design examples for aircraft such as the Learjet 45, Tucano Turboprop Trainer, BAe Hawk, Airbus A320
- Includes a full range of industry standard aircraft sizing analyses
- Looks at several performance substantiation and compliance to certification requirements
- Discusses the military requirements covering some combat aspects
- Accompanied by a website hosting supporting material
Conceptual Aircraft Design: An Industrial Approach is an excellent resource for those designing and building modern aircraft for commercial, military, and private use.
Table of Contents
Series Preface xxxvii
Preface xxxix
Individual Acknowledgements By Ajoy Kumar Kundu xli
By Mark A. Price xlv
By David Riordan xlvii
List of Symbols and Abbreviations xlix
Road Map of the Book lvii
Part I Prerequisites 1
1 Introduction 3
1.1 Overview 3
1.2 Brief Historical Background 4
1.3 Aircraft Evolution 10
1.4 Current Aircraft Design Trends for both Civil and Military Aircraft (the 1980s Onwards) 13
1.5 Future Trends 16
1.6 Forces and Drivers 23
1.7 Airworthiness Requirements 23
1.8 Current Aircraft Performance Analyses Levels 25
1.9 Aircraft Classification 26
1.10 Topics of Current Research Interest Related to Aircraft Design (Supersonic/Subsonic) 27
1.11 Cost Implications 30
1.12 The Classroom Learning Process 30
1.13 Units and Dimensions 34
1.14 Use of Semi-Empirical Relations and Datasheets 34
1.15 The Atmosphere 36
References 45
2 Aircraft Familiarity, Aircraft Design Process, Market Study 46
2.1 Overview 46
2.2 Introduction 47
2.3 Aircraft Familiarisation 48
2.4 Typical Aircraft Design Process 53
2.5 Market Survey - Project Identification 53
2.6 Four Phases of Aircraft Design 57
2.7 Typical Task Breakdown in Each Phase 62
2.8 Aircraft Specifications forThree Civil Aircraft Case Studies 67
2.9 MilitaryMarket - Some TypicalMilitary Aircraft Design Specifications 70
2.10 Airworthiness Requirements 73
2.11 Coursework Procedures - Market Survey 75
References 76
3 Aerodynamic Fundamentals, Definitions and Aerofoils 78
3.1 Overview 78
3.2 Introduction 79
3.3 Airflow Behaviour - Laminar and Turbulent 80
3.4 Flow Past an Aerofoil 84
3.5 Generation of Lift 85
3.6 Aircraft Motion, Forces and Moments 86
3.7 Definitions of Aerodynamic Parameters 91
3.8 Aerofoils 91
3.9 Reynolds Number and Surface Condition Effects on Aerofoils - Using NACA Aerofoil Test Data 101
3.10 Centre of Pressure and Aerodynamic Centre 105
3.11 Types of Stall 109
3.12 High-Lift Devices 110
3.13 Flow Regimes 112
3.14 Summary 117
3.15 Aerofoil Design and Manufacture 123
3.16 Aircraft Centre of Gravity, Centre of Pressure and Neutral Point 125
References 125
4 Wings 127
4.1 Overview 127
4.2 Introduction 128
4.3 GenericWing Planform Shapes 128
4.4 Wing Position Relative to Fuselage 132
4.5 Structural Considerations 136
4.6 Wing Parameter Definitions 137
4.7 Spanwise Variation of Aerofoil t/c and Incidence 139
4.8 Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) 140
4.9 Wing Aerodynamics 145
4.10 Wing Load 153
4.11 Compressibility Effect:Wing Sweep 160
4.12 TransonicWings 167
4.13 SupersonicWings 167
4.14 Additional Vortex Lift - LE Suction 170
4.15 High-Lift Devices on theWing - Flaps and Slats 170
4.16 Additional Surfaces on theWing 175
4.17 The Square-Cube Law 176
4.18 Influence ofWing Area and Span on Aerodynamics 177
4.19 Summary ofWing Design 179
References 183
5 Bodies - Fuselages, Nacelle Pods, Intakes and the Associated Systems 184
5.1 Overview 184
5.2 Introduction 185
CIVIL AIRCRAFT 188
5.3 Fuselage Geometry - Civil Aircraft 188
5.4 Fuselage Closures - Civil Aircraft 189
5.5 Fuselage Fineness Ratio (FR) 192
5.6 Fuselage Cross-Sectional Geometry - Civil Aircraft 194
5.7 Fuselage Abreast Seating - Civil Aircraft 195
5.8 Cabin Seat Layout 197
5.9 Fuselage Layout 205
5.10 Fuselage Aerodynamic Considerations 206
5.11 Fuselage Pitching Moment 208
5.12 Nacelle Pod - Civil Aircraft 213
5.13 Exhaust Nozzles - Civil Aircraft 220
MILITARY AIRCRAFT 222
5.14 Fuselage Geometry - Military Aircraft 222
5.15 Pilot Cockpit/Flight Deck - Military Aircraft 224
5.16 Engine Installation - Military Aircraft 224
References 228
6 Empennage and Other Planar Surfaces 229
6.1 Overview 229
6.2 Introduction 230
6.3 Terminologies and Definitions of Empennage 231
6.4 Empennage Mount and Types 232
6.5 Different Kinds of Empennage Design 235
6.6 Empennage Tail Arm 237
6.7 Empennage Aerodynamics 240
6.8 Aircraft Control System 256
6.9 Aircraft Control Surfaces and Trim Tabs 259
6.10 Empennage Design 262
6.11 Other Planar Surfaces 264
References 267
7 Aircraft Statistics, Configuration Choices and Layout 268
7.1 Overview 268
7.2 Introduction 269
CIVIL AIRCRAFT 270
7.3 Civil Aircraft Mission (Payload Range) 270
7.4 Civil Subsonic Jet Aircraft Statistics (Sizing Parameters) 271
7.5 Internal Arrangements of Fuselage - Civil Aircraft 282
7.6 Some Interesting Aircraft Configurations - Civil Aircraft 288
7.7 Summary of Civil Aircraft Design Choices 291
MILITARY AIRCRAFT 292
7.8 Military Aircraft: Detailed Classification, Evolutionary Pattern and Mission Profile 292
7.9 Military Aircraft Mission 299
7.10 Military Aircraft Statistics (Regression Analysis) 299
7.11 Military Aircraft Component Geometries 304
7.12 Miscellaneous Comments 310
7.13 Summary of Military Aircraft Design Choices 310
References 311
Part II Aircraft Design 313
8 Configuring Aircraft - Concept Definition 315
8.1 Overview 315
8.2 Introduction 317
CIVIL AIRCRAFT 321
8.3 Prerequisites to Initiate Conceptual Design of Civil Aircraft 321
8.4 Fuselage Design 325
8.5 Wing Design 327
8.6 Empennage Design 330
8.7 Nacelle and Pylon Design 334
8.8 Undercarriage 337
8.9 Worked-Out Example: Configuring a Bizjet Class Aircraft 337
MILITARY AIRCRAFT 350
8.10 Prerequisite to Initiate Military (Combat/Trainer) Aircraft Design 350
8.11 Fuselage Design (Military - Combat/Trainer Aircraft) 354
8.12 Wing Design (Military - Combat/Trainer Aircraft) 356
8.13 Empennage Design (Military - Combat/Trainer Aircraft) 358
8.14 Engine/Intake/Nozzle (Military - Combat/Trainer Aircraft) 360
8.15 Undercarriage (Military - Combat/Trainer Aircraft) 361
8.16 Worked-Out Example - Configuring Military AJT Class Aircraft 361
8.17 Turboprop Trainer Aircraft (TPT) 374
References 383
9 Undercarriage 384
9.1 Overview 384
9.2 Introduction 385
9.3 Types of Undercarriage 387
9.4 Undercarriage Description 388
9.5 Undercarriage Nomenclature and Definitions 391
9.6 Undercarriage Retraction and Stowage 393
9.7 Undercarriage Design Drivers and Considerations 394
9.8 Tyre Friction with the Ground: Rolling and Braking Friction Coefficient 396
9.9 Load on Wheels and Shock Absorbers 397
9.10 Energy Absorbed 400
9.11 Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL) 402
9.12 Runway Pavement 403
9.13 Airfield/Runway Strength and Aircraft Operating Compatibility 404
9.14 Wheels and Tyres 407
9.15 Tyre Nomenclature, Classification, Loading and Selection 411
9.16 Configuring Undercarriage Layout and Positioning 414
9.17 Worked-Out Examples 417
9.18 Discussion and Miscellaneous Considerations 426
References 427
10 Aircraft Weight and Centre of Gravity Estimation 428
10.1 Overview 428
10.2 Introduction 429
10.3 The Weight Drivers 431
10.4 Aircraft Mass (Weight) Breakdown 432
10.5 Aircraft CG and Neutral Point Positions 433
10.6 Aircraft Component Groups 436
10.7 Aircraft Component Mass Estimation 438
CIVIL AIRCRAFT 443
10.8 Mass Fraction Method - Civil Aircraft 443
10.9 Graphical Method - Civil Aircraft 445
10.10 Semi-Empirical Equation Method (Statistical) 446
10.11 Centre of Gravity Determination 455
10.12 Worked-Out Example - Bizjet Aircraft 456
MILITARY AIRCRAFT 461
10.13 Mass Fraction Method - Military Aircraft 461
10.14 Graphical Method to Predict Aircraft ComponentWeight - Military Aircraft 463
10.15 Semi-Empirical Equations Method (Statistical) - Military Aircraft 463
10.16 CG Determination - Military Aircraft 468
10.17 Classroom Example of Military AJT/CAS Aircraft Mass Estimation 468
10.18 AJT Mass Estimation and CG Location 471
10.19 Classroom Example of a Turboprop Trainer (TPT) Aircraft and COIN Variant Weight Estimation 472
10.20 Classroom Worked-Out TPT Mass Estimation and CG Location 476
10.21 Summary of Concept Definition 478
References 478
11 Aircraft Drag 479
11.1 Overview 479
11.2 Introduction 480
11.3 Parasite Drag Definition 481
11.4 Aircraft Drag Breakdown (Subsonic) 482
11.4.1 Discussion 483
11.5 Understanding Drag Polar 483
11.6 Aircraft Drag Formulation 487
11.7 Aircraft Drag Estimation Methodology (Subsonic) 488
11.8 Minimum Parasite Drag Estimation Methodology 489
11.9 Semi-Empirical Relations to Estimate Aircraft-Component Parasite Drag 491
11.10 Notes on Excrescence Drag Resulting from Surface Imperfections 500
11.11 Minimum Parasite Drag 501
11.12 ΔCDp Estimation 501
11.13 Subsonic Wave Drag 502
11.14 Total Aircraft Drag 503
11.15 Low-Speed Aircraft Drag at Takeoff and Landing 503
11.16 Propeller-Driven Aircraft Drag 508
11.17 Military Aircraft Drag 509
11.18 Supersonic Drag 509
11.19 Coursework Example - Civil Bizjet Aircraft 511
11.20 Classroom Example - Subsonic Military Aircraft (Advanced Jet Trainer - AJT) 519
11.21 Classroom Example - Turboprop Trainer (TPT) 522
11.22 Classroom Example - Supersonic Military Aircraft 527
11.23 Drag Comparison 537
11.24 Some Concluding Remarks 538
References 538
12 Aircraft Power Plant and Integration 540
12.1 Overview 540
12.2 Background 540
12.3 Definitions 543
12.4 Introduction - Air-Breathing Aircraft Engine Types 546
12.5 Simplified Representation of a Gas Turbine (Brayton/Joule) Cycle 551
12.6 Formulation/Theory - Isentropic Case (Trend Analysis) 551
12.7 Engine Integration to Aircraft - Installation Effects 556
12.8 Intake/Nozzle Design 560
12.9 Exhaust Nozzle and Thrust Reverser (TR) 563
12.10 Propeller 566
12.11 Propeller Theory 568
12.12 Propeller Performance - Use of Charts, Practical Engineering Applications 572
References 575
13 Aircraft Power Plant Performance 577
13.1 Overview 577
13.2 Introduction 578
13.3 Uninstalled Turbofan Engine Performance Data - Civil Aircraft 581
13.4 Installed Engine Performance Data of Matched Engines to Coursework Aircraft 590
13.5 Installed Turboprop Performance Data 594
13.6 Piston Engine 598
13.7 Engine Performance Grid 602
13.8 Some Turbofan Data (OPR = Overall Pressure Ratio) 606
References 607
14 Aircraft Sizing, Engine Matching and Variant Derivatives 608
14.1 Overview 608
14.2 Introduction 609
14.3 Theory 610
14.4 Coursework Exercise - Civil Aircraft Design (Bizjet) 615
14.5 Sizing Analysis - Civil Aircraft (Bizjet) 617
14.6 Coursework Exercise - Military Aircraft (AJT) 619
14.7 Sizing Analysis - Military Aircraft (AJT) 623
14.8 Aircraft Sizing Studies and Sensitivity Analyses 625
14.9 Discussion 626
References 630
15 Aircraft Performance 631
15.1 Overview 631
15.2 Introduction 632
15.3 Takeoff Performance 635
15.4 Landing Performance 642
15.5 Climb Performance 644
15.6 Descent Performance 648
15.7 Checking of the InitialMaximum Cruise Speed Capability 649
15.8 Payload-Range Capability - Derivation of Range Equations 649
15.9 In Horizontal Plane (Yaw Plane) - Sustained Coordinated Turn 651
15.10 Aircraft Performance Substantiation -Worked-Out Classroom Examples - Bizjet 653
15.11 Aircraft Performance Substantiation - Military AJT 668
15.12 Propeller-Driven Aircraft - TPT (Parabolic Drag Polar) 677
15.13 Summarised Discussion of the Design 678
References 681
16 Aircraft Cost Considerations 682
16.1 Overview 682
16.2 Introduction 683
16.3 Aircraft Cost and Operational Cost 686
16.4 Rapid Cost Modelling 690
16.5 Aircraft Direct Operating Cost (DOC) 701
16.6 Aircraft Performance Management 707
References 710
Part III Further Design Considerations 713
17 Aircraft Load 715
17.1 Overview 715
17.2 Introduction 715
17.3 Flight Manoeuvres 718
17.4 Aircraft Loads 718
17.5 Theory and Definitions 719
17.6 Limits - Load and Speeds 720
17.7 V-n Diagram 721
17.8 Gust Envelope 726
References 729
18 Stability Considerations Affecting Aircraft Design 730
18.1 Overview 730
18.2 Introduction 730
18.3 Static and Dynamic Stability 731
18.4 Theory 736
18.5 Current Statistical Trends for Horizontal and Vertical Tail Coefficients 741
18.6 Stick Force - Aircraft Control Surfaces and Trim Tabs 741
18.7 Inherent Aircraft Motions as Characteristics of Design 743
18.8 Design Considerations for Stability - Civil Aircraft 747
18.9 Military Aircraft - Non-Linear Effects 750
18.10 Active Control Technology (ACT) - Fly-by-Wire (FBW) 752
18.11 Summary of Design Considerations for Stability 754
References 755
19 Materials and Structures 756
19.1 Overview 756
19.2 Introduction 756
19.3 Function of Structure - Loading 759
19.4 Basic Definitions - Structures 761
19.5 From Structure to Material 762
19.6 Basic Definitions - Materials 763
19.7 Material Properties 765
19.8 Considerations with Respect to Design 766
19.9 Structural Configuration 776
19.10 Materials - General Considerations 784
19.11 Metals 786
19.12 Wood and Fabric 788
19.13 Composite Materials 788
19.14 Structural Configurations 793
19.15 Rules of Thumb and Concept Checks 800
19.16 Finite Element Analysis (FEA)/Finite Element Method (FEM) 804
References 805
20 Aircraft Manufacturing Considerations 806
20.1 Overview 806
20.2 Introduction 808
20.3 Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DFM/A) 808
20.4 Manufacturing Practices 809
20.5 Six-Sigma Concept 811
20.6 Tolerance Relaxation at the Wetted Surface 812
20.7 Reliability and Maintainability (R&M) 814
20.8 The Design Considerations 814
20.9 ‘Design for Customer’ (A Figure of Merit) 817
20.10 Digital Manufacturing Process Management 821
References 824
21 Miscellaneous Design Considerations 825
21.1 Overview 825
21.2 Introduction 826
21.3 History of FAA - the Role of Regulation 827
21.4 Flight Test 831
21.5 Contribution by the Ground Effect on Takeoff 832
21.6 Aircraft Environmental Issues 833
21.7 Flying in Adverse Environments 838
21.8 Military Aircraft Flying Hazards 842
21.9 End-of-Life Disposal 842
21.10 Extended Range Twin-Engine Operation (ETOP) 843
21.11 Flight and Human Physiology 843
21.12 Some Emerging Scenarios 845
References 846
22 Aircraft Systems 847
22.1 Overview 847
22.2 Introduction 848
22.3 Environmental Issues (Noise and Engine Emission) 849
22.4 Safety Issues 851
22.5 Aircraft Flight Deck (Cockpit) Layout 853
22.6 Aircraft Systems 862
22.7 Flying in Adverse Environments and Passenger Utility 874
22.8 Military Aircraft Survivability 878
References 885
23 Computational Fluid Dynamics 886
23.1 Overview 886
23.2 Introduction 887
23.3 Current Status 888
23.4 Approach Road to CFD Analyses 889
23.5 Some Case Studies 892
23.6 Hierarchy of CFD Simulation Methods 893
23.7 Summary of Discussions 896
References 897
24 Electric Aircraft 899
24.1 Overview 899
24.2 Introduction 900
24.3 Energy Storage 902
24.4 Prime Mover - Motors 905
24.5 Electric Powered Aircraft Power Train 906
24.6 Hybrid Electric Aircraft (HEA) 908
24.7 Distributed Electric Propulsion (DEP) 910
24.8 Electric Aircraft Related Theory/Analyses 911
24.9 Electric Powered Aircraft Sizing 914
24.10 Discussion 916
24.11 Worked-Out Example 918
References 919
Appendix A Conversions and Important Equations 920
Appendix B International Standard Atmosphere Table Data from Hydrostatic Equations 923
Appendix C Fundamental Equations (See Table of Contents for Symbols and Nomenclature.) 926
Appendix D Some Case Studies - Aircraft Data 932
Appendix E Aerofoil Data 948
Appendix F Wheels and Tyres 959
Index 965
