Advances in Smart Nanomaterials and their Applications brings together the latest advances and novel methods in the preparation of smart nanomaterials for cutting-edge applications. The book covers fundamental concepts of nanomaterials, including fabrication methods, processing, application areas, specific applications of smart nanomaterials across a range of areas, such as biomedicine, pharmaceuticals, food science and packaging, sensing, cosmetics and dermatology, gas, oil, energy, wastewater and environment, textiles, agriculture, and forestry sectors. In each case, possible challenges, recent trends, and potential future developments are addressed in detail. The book also discusses various considerations for the utilization of smart nanomaterials, including environmental safety and legal requirements. The book is suitable for graduate students as a textbook and simultaneously be useful for both novices and experienced scientists or researchers, medical biologists, nanobiotechnologists, nanoengineers, agricultural scientists, and general biologists as a reference book as well as inspires some industrialists and policy makers involved in the investigation of smart nanomaterials.
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Table of Contents
List of contributors xv
About the editors xix
Preface xxi
Key features xxiii
1. Nanomaterials: introduction, synthesis, characterization, and applications 1
Tadege Belay, Limenew Abate Worku, Rakesh Kumar Bachheti, Archana Bachheti and Azamal Husen
Abbreviations 1
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Classification of nanomaterials 3
1.2.1 Carbon-based nanoparticles 3
1.3 Metal/metal oxide nanoparticles 5
1.3.1 Ceramics nanoparticles 6
1.3.2 Semiconductor nanoparticles 7
1.3.3 Polymeric nanoparticles 7
1.3.4 Lipid-based nanoparticles 7
1.4 Properties of nanomaterials 7
1.5 Synthesis of nanoparticles 8
1.6 Factors affecting the synthesis of nanomaterials 9
1.6.1 Particular method 9
1.6.2 pH 9
1.6.3 Temperature 9
1.6.4 Pressure 12
1.6.5 Time 12
1.6.6 Preparation cost 12
1.6.7 Particle size and shape 12
1.6.8 Pore size 12
1.6.9 Environment 13
1.6.10 Proximity 13
1.6.11 Other factors 13
1.7 Characterization techniques 13
1.8 Applications of nanomaterials 15
1.9 Conclusion 16
References 17
2. Smart nanomaterials in the medical industry 23
Ankush D. Sontakke, Deepti, Niladri Shekhar Samanta and Mihir K. Purkait
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Classification of smart nanomaterials 26
2.2.1 Physical responsive nanomaterials 27
2.2.2 Chemical responsive nanomaterials 29
2.2.3 Biological responsive nanomaterials 31
2.3 Significance and adaptability of smart nanomaterials for the medical industry 32
2.4 Smart nanomaterials and their potential use in the medical industry 33
2.4.1 Carbon-based smart nanomaterials 33
2.4.2 Inorganic smart nanomaterials 35
2.4.3 Polymeric smart nanomaterials 37
2.5 Applications of smart nanomaterials in the medical industry 38
2.5.1 Multifunctional drug delivery system 38
2.5.2 Tissue engineering 39
2.5.3 Biosensing and bioimaging 40
2.5.4 Photodynamic therapy 41
2.5.5 Magnetic resonance imaging 42
2.5.6 Toxicological aspects of smart nanomaterials 43
2.6 Challenges and future prospective 44
2.7 Conclusion 44
References 45
3. Nanomedicine-lipiodol formulations for transcatheter arterial chemoembolization 51
Xing Gao, En Ren, Chengchao Chu, Yun Zeng and Gang Liu
3.1 Introduction 51
3.1.1 Hepatocellular carcinoma 51
3.1.2 Transcatheter arterial chemoembolization 53
3.1.3 Lipiodol 53
3.1.4 Nanomedicine 54
3.2 Nanomedicine-lipiodol formulations 55
3.2.1 Coarse emulsions 55
3.2.2 Pickering emulsion 56
3.2.3 Homogeneous formulation 56
3.3 Functions and applications of nanomedicine-lipiodol formulations 57
3.3.1 Drug delivery 57
3.3.2 Imaging 58
3.3.3 Precise surgical navigation 62
3.3.4 Combined therapy 64
3.4 Conclusions and perspectives 67
Acknowledgments 68
References 68
4. Role of nanotechnology in cancer therapies: recent advances, current issues, and approaches 73
Madhusudhan Alle and Md. Adnan
4.1 Introduction 73
4.2 Photothermal therapy 77
4.3 Photodynamic therapy 78
4.4 Sonodynamic therapy 79
4.4.1 Mechanism of sonodynamic therapy 80
4.4.2 Sonosensitizers 81
4.5 Starvation therapy 82
4.5.1 Glucose oxidase-mediated cancer starvation therapy 84
4.5.2 Glucose oxidase-based cancer monotherapy 84
4.5.3 Synergistic starvation/chemotherapy 84
4.5.4 Glucose oxidase-inducing cancer starvation and hypoxia-activated chemotherapy 85
4.6 Cancer immunotherapy 85
4.6.1 Cancer-immunity cycle 86
4.6.2 Nanomaterials cancer immunotherapy 87
4.7 Conclusion 88
References 88
5. Lipid-based cubosome nanoparticle mediated efficient and controlled vesicular drug delivery for cancer therapy 97
Rittick Mondal, Harshita Shand, Anoop Kumar, Hanen Sellami, Suvankar Ghorai, Amit Kumar Mandal and Azamal Husen
5.1 Introduction 97
5.2 Structure and advantages of cubosome nanoparticles 98
5.3 Synthesis of cubosome nanoparticles 98
5.3.1 Topdown techniques 99
5.3.2 Bottomup techniques 100
5.4 Characterization of cubosome nanoparticles 100
5.5 Application of cubosome nanoparticles as an anticancer drug delivery carrier 101
5.6 The future aspect of cubosome nanoparticles 103
5.7 Conclusion 104
References 105
6. Smart nanomaterials and control of biofilms 109
Ajay Kumar Chauhan, Surendra Pratap Singh, Bhoomika Yadav, Samvedna Khatri and Azamal Husen
6.1 Introduction 109
6.2 Biofilm 110
6.2.1 Structure and development of biofilms 111
6.2.2 Function of biofilms 112
6.3 Various types of biofilms 113
6.3.1 Bacterial 113
6.3.2 Mycobacteria 113
6.3.3 Fungi 113
6.3.4 Algae 116
6.4 Various techniques to control biofilm 116
6.4.1 Ultraviolet irradiation 116
6.4.2 Chlorine 116
6.4.3 Hydrogen peroxide 117
6.4.4 Nitrous oxide 117
6.5 Barriers to conventional treatment methods 117
6.5.1 Antibiotic resistance 117
6.5.2 Microenvironment of biofilm 118
6.5.3 Control of biofilm using nanoparticles 118
6.6 Various types of nanomaterials used for biofilm control 118
6.6.1 Metallic nanomaterials 119
6.6.2 Nonmetallic inorganic nanomaterials 120
6.6.3 Lipid-based nanomaterials 120
6.6.4 Polymeric nanomaterials 121
6.7 Conclusion and prospects 121
References 122
7. Antimicrobial activities of nanomaterials 127
Limenew Abate Worku, Deepti, Yenework Nigussie, Archana Bachheti, Rakesh Kumar Bachheti and Azamal Husen
Abbreviations 127
7.1 Introduction 127
7.2 Microbial resistance to nanoparticles 128
7.3 The effects of nanoparticles on microbial resistance 129
7.4 Antibacterial mechanisms of nanoparticles 129
7.5 Antimicrobial activities of various nanoparticles 131
7.5.1 Silver nanoparticle 131
7.5.2 Gold nanoparticles metal-oxide nanoparticles 132
7.5.3 Biopolymers 136
7.5.4 Natural essential oil 138
7.6 Antibacterial application of nanoparticles 140
7.6.1 Food packaging 140
7.6.2 Wound dressing application 141
7.7 Conclusion 142
References 142
8. Management of infectious disease and biotoxin elimination using nanomaterials 149
Ghazala Sultan, Inamul Hasan Madar, Syeda Mahvish Zahra, Mahpara Safdar, Umar Farooq Alahmad, Mahamuda Begum, Ramachandran Chelliah and Deog-Hawn Oh
8.1 Introduction 149
8.1.1 Nanomaterials and nanotechnology 149
8.1.2 Applications of nanotechnology 150
8.1.3 Challenges in nanotechnology 152
8.2 Management of infectious disease based on nanotechnology 153
8.2.1 Identification of pathogens 153
8.2.2 Gold nanoparticles 153
8.2.3 Silver nanoparticles 154
8.2.4 Quantum dots 154
8.2.5 Fluorescent polymeric nanoparticle 154
8.3 Bacterial disinfection and drug resistance bacteria controlled by nanotechnology 154
8.4 Treatment of infectious diseases based on nanotechnology 162
8.4.1 Nanomaterials as a treatment tool 162
8.4.2 Antimicrobial nanomaterials in treatment 163
8.4.3 Nanotherapies for viral infections 165
8.5 Biotoxin elimination using nanomaterials 166
8.6 Silica nanoreactor polyethylene glycol for nanodetoxification 167
8.6.1 Mycotoxin eliminations using nanotechnology 167
8.7 Limitations of available nanodetoxification methods 167
References 168
9. Nanomaterials and their application in microbiology disciplines 175
Arvind Arya, Pankaj Kumar Tyagi, Sandeep Kumar and Azamal Husen
9.1 Introduction 175
9.2 Application of nanomaterials in water microbiology 176
9.2.1 Use of nanoparticles in water disinfection 177
9.3 Application of nanomaterials in food microbiology 178
9.3.1 Roles of nanotechnology in food adulteration analysis 180
9.3.2 Food safety analysis using nanomaterial and devices 182
9.3.3 Detection of food pathogens using nanosensors 183
9.3.4 Application of nanosensors in the detection of toxins 183
9.3.5 Application of nanosensors in the detection of chemicals and pesticides in food 183
9.3.6 Nanomaterials for protection from allergens 184
9.3.7 Application of nano barcodes in product authenticity 184
9.3.8 Nanomaterials for the inhibition of biofilm formation 185
9.4 Application of nanomaterials in medical biology and immunology 185
9.5 Application of nanomaterials in agricultural microbiology 186
9.6 Conclusion and future prospective 193
References 194
10. Smart nanomaterials in biosensing applications 207
Arvind Arya and Azamal Husen
Abbreviations 207
10.1 Introduction 207
10.2 Smart nanomaterials and their applications by types 208
10.2.1 Types of smart nanomaterials 210
10.2.2 Applications of smart nanomaterials 210
10.2.3 Carbon allotrope-based nanomaterials 211
10.3 Application of smart nanomaterials in biosensing 215
10.3.1 Biomedical diagnosis 216
10.3.2 Food quality control 217
10.3.3 Pesticide detection and environment monitoring 217
10.4 Conclusion and prospects 224
References 224
11. Use of smart nanomaterials in food packaging 233
Nikita Singh, Smriti Gaur, Sonam Chawla, Sachidanand Singh and Azamal Husen
Abbreviations 233
11.1 Introduction 233
11.2 Functions of packaging in food processing 235
11.3 Applications of nano-materials in food products packaging 235
11.3.1 Active packaging 235
11.3.2 Intelligent/smart packaging 236
11.4 Exposure and migration of nano-materials to food 238
11.5 Risks of nano-materials in food and food products packaging 239
11.6 Present public interest and regulation for nanomaterials in food packaging 240
11.7 Future perspectives 240
11.8 Conclusion 241
References 242
12. Nanosensors in food science and technology 247
Anweshan, Pranjal P. Das, Simons Dhara and Mihir K. Purkait
12.1 Introduction 247
12.2 A general overview of sensors and nanosensors 248
12.3 Nano-sensing techniques 249
12.3.1 Electrochemical sensors 249
12.3.2 Colorimetric sensors 250
12.3.3 Photoluminescence sensors 251
12.4 Fabrication methods of nanosensors 252
12.4.1 Electrodeposition and electropolymerization 252
12.4.2 Electrospinning and electrospraying 253
12.4.3 Lithography and fiber pulling 253
12.4.4 Green synthesis of nanosensors 254
12.5 Classification of sensory nanostructures 255
12.5.1 Nanoparticles 255
12.5.2 Carbon nanomaterials 256
12.5.3 Nanowires 257
12.6 Nanosensors for detection of spoilage in food 258
12.6.1 Detection of pathogens in edible items 258
12.6.2 Detection of toxins 258
12.6.3 Detection of gases and pH change to expose food spoilage 259
12.7 Nanosensors for detection of adulteration in food 259
12.7.1 Detection of additives 259
12.7.2 Detection of sugars and melamine 260
12.7.3 Detection of urea 261
12.8 Nanosensors for quality evaluation of beverages 261
12.8.1 Detection of nutrients and antioxidants 261
12.8.2 Detection of chemical contaminants and heavy metals 263
12.9 Nanosensors for smart food packaging 264
12.10 Challenges and future perspectives 265
12.11 Conclusion 266
References 267
13. Nanosensors for detection of volatile organic compounds 273
Tanmay Vyas, Kamakshi Parsai, Isha Dhingra and Abhijeet Joshi
13.1 Introduction 273
13.1.1 Environmental pollution 273
13.1.2 What are volatile compounds 274
13.1.3 Volatile compounds as pollutants 274
13.1.4 What are nanosensors? 277
13.2 Methods of detection of volatile organic compounds 277
13.2.1 Extraction techniques 278
13.2.2 Classical methods of detection 279
13.2.3 Sensing techniques for detection of volatile organic compounds 281
13.3 Materials used in nanosensors detecting volatile organic compounds 284
13.3.1 Conducting polymeric matrix 284
13.3.2 Carbon material matrix 285
13.3.3 Metal oxides 287
13.4 Nanosensor based sensing 288
13.5 Why nanosensor for detection 290
13.6 Applications of nano sensors-based detection 291
13.7 Conclusion 292
References 292
14. Nanomaterials in cosmetics and dermatology 297
Deepak Kulkarni, Santosh Shelke, Shubham Musale, Prabhakar Panzade, Karishma Sharma and Prabhanjan Giram
14.1 Introduction 297
14.2 Different materials are used for the fabrication of nanocarriers for cosmetics and dermatological use 299
14.2.1 Metallic materials 299
14.2.2 Carbon-based nano-materials 300
14.2.3 Polymers and lipids 300
14.3 Nanocarriers for cosmetics and dermatological use 301
14.3.1 Liposomes 302
14.3.2 Niosomes 302
14.3.3 Solid lipid nanoparticles 302
14.3.4 Nanostructured lipid carriers 303
14.3.5 Nanoemulsion 303
14.3.6 Nanocapsules and nanospheres 303
14.3.7 Nanocrystals 304
14.3.8 Nanoparticles 304
14.4 Characterization of nanomaterials 304
14.5 Functionalized nanomaterials for cosmetics and dermatological use 307
14.5.1 Functional nanomaterials for cosmetics 307
14.5.2 Functional nanomaterials for dermatology 308
14.6 Applications 309
14.6.1 Ultraviolet protecting agents 309
14.6.2 Phototherapy 309
14.6.3 Inflammatory diseases 310
14.6.4 Antiseptic and wound healing 310
14.6.5 Skin cancer therapy 311
14.6.6 Sebaceous gland diseases 311
14.6.7 Cosmetics 311
14.7 Toxicity assessment of nanomaterials for cosmetic and dermatological use
(in vitro, in vivo, ex vivo) 313
14.7.1 In vitro 313
14.7.2 In vivo 314
14.7.3 Ex vivo 314
14.8 Cosmetic and dermatological marketed product 315
14.9 Patent scenario 316
14.10 Conclusion 317
Acknowledgment 317
References 317
15. Development of eco-friendly smart textiles from nanomaterials 325
Jayasankar Janeni and Nadeesh M. Adassooriya
15.1 Introduction 325
15.2 Eco-friendly nanomaterial 326
15.2.1 Carbon-based nanomaterials 326
15.2.2 Conductive polymer composites 327
15.2.3 Biopolymers 327
15.3 Applications of nanomaterial for smart textiles 328
15.3.1 Wearable sensors 328
15.3.2 Body signal monitoring 329
15.3.3 Energy harvesting 330
15.3.4 Nanocoatings for smart textiles 330
15.4 Conclusion and future trends 332
References 333
16. Energy storage properties of nanomaterials 337
Mukesh Sharma, Pranjal P. Das and Mihir K. Purkait
16.1 Introduction 337
16.1.1 Nanomaterials for anode 338
16.1.2 Nanomaterials for cathode 338
16.2 Nanomaterials for lithium-ion battery applications 339
16.3 Advances and phenomena enabled by nanomaterials in energy storage 341
16.4 Fabrication of nanomaterial-based energy storage devices 342
16.5 Surface chemistry and impurities in the microstructures for lithium-ion battery applications 342
16.5.1 Additive in organic liquid electrolyte 342
16.5.2 Surface modifications 343
16.6 Microstructure materials for supercapacitor applications 345
16.6.1 Electrochromism 345
16.6.2 Supercapacitor battery-hybrid device 345
16.7 Nanomaterials for hydrogen storage 346
16.8 Challenges and prospects 347
16.9 Conclusions 347
References 348
17. Smart nanomaterials based on metals and metal oxides for photocatalytic applications 351
Ahmed Kotb, Rabeea D. Abdel-Rahim, Ahmed S. Ali and Hassanien Gomaa
17.1 Introduction 351
17.2 Nanomaterial's preparation approaches 352
17.2.1 Bottomup approaches 352
17.2.2 Topdown approaches 352
17.3 Characterization of smart nanomaterial-based catalysts 353
17.3.1 Structural characterization 353
17.3.2 Morphology characterization: electron microscopy 356
17.3.3 Dynamic light scattering 359
17.3.4 Optical characterization 359
17.3.5 BET surface area 361
17.3.6 Impedance spectroscopy 362
17.4 Applications of nanomaterial-based catalysts 363
17.4.1 Water purification 363
17.4.2 Biodiesel production 365
17.4.3 Photocatalysis 367
17.4.4 Photocatalytic fuel cell 368
17.5 Metal-based nanomaterials 371
17.5.1 Silver nanoparticles 373
17.5.2 Gold nanoparticles 375
17.5.3 Platinum nanoparticles and palladium nanoparticles 377
17.6 Metal oxide-based nanomaterials 378
17.6.1 TiO2 preparation and photocatalytic applications 378
17.6.2 ZnO preparation and photocatalytic applications 380
17.6.3 Iron oxides preparation and photocatalytic applications 381
17.6.4 Bi2O3 preparation and photocatalytic applications 384
17.7 Metal-TiO2 nanocomposite 385
17.7.1 Ag@TiO2 nanocomposite: preparation and photocatalytic applications 386
17.7.2 Au@TiO2 nanocomposite: preparation and photocatalytic applications 392
17.7.3 Pd@TiO2 nanocomposite: preparation and photocatalytic applications 393
17.7.4 Pt@TiO2 nanocomposite: preparation and photocatalytic applications 400
17.8 Conclusion and perspectives 404
References 404
18. Nanomaterials in the oil and gas industry 423
Subhash Nandlal Shah and Muili Feyisitan Fakoya
18.1 Introduction 423
18.2 Drilling and hydraulic fracturing fluids 424
18.3 Enhanced oil recovery (including nanoparticle transport, and emulsion and foam stability) 428
18.4 Oilwell cementing 433
18.5 Heavy oil viscosity 435
18.6 Formation fines migration 436
18.7 Other applications 437
18.7.1 Cement spacers 437
18.7.2 Corrosion inhibition 438
18.7.3 Logging operations 439
18.7.4 Hydrocarbon detection 439
18.7.5 Methane release from gas hydrates 439
18.7.6 Drag reduction in porous media 440
18.8 Conclusions 440
References 440
19. Use of nanomaterials in agricultural sectors 445
Gulamnabi Vanti, Shivakumar Belur and Azamal Husen
Abbreviations 445
19.1 Introduction 446
19.1.1 Phyto-nanotechnology 447
19.1.2 Nanobiosensors in agroecosystems 448
19.1.3 Nanomaterials in food processing and packaging 457
19.1.4 Nanoparticles in plant disease management 458
19.1.5 Nano fertilizers 459
19.2 Conclusion 460
References 460
20. Use of nanomaterials in the forest industry 469
Paras Porwal, Hamid R. Taghiyari and Azamal Husen
20.1 Introduction 469
20.2 Application of nanotechnology for woodbased sectors 470
20.2.1 Nanotechnology in wood preservation and modification 470
20.3 Wood composites 471
20.4 Wood coatings 474
20.5 Improving wood durability 475
20.6 Improving water absorption 475
20.7 Improving mechanical property 476
20.8 Improving UV absorption 476
20.9 Improving fire retardancy 477
20.10 Pulp and paper industry 478
20.11 Reinforcing agents 479
20.12 Coating nanomaterials 479
20.13 Retention agents 479
20.14 Fillers 480
20.15 Sizing agents 480
20.16 Nanocellulose potentials in the development of sensor devices 480
20.17 Nanotoxicity: a safety concern 481
20.18 Conclusion 481
References 482
21. Management of wastewater and other environmental issues using smart nanomaterials 489
Mohammad Asif Raja, Md Asad Ahmad, Md Daniyal and Azamal Husen
21.1 Introduction 489
21.2 Wastewater and their sources 491
21.3 Other environmental issues associated with wastewater 491
21.4 Introduction of nanotechnology in wastewater treatment 493
21.4.1 Caron-based nanomaterials 495
21.4.2 Carbon nanotubes 495
21.4.3 Graphene-based nanomaterials 496
21.4.4 Graphitic carbon nitrate (g-C3N4) 498
21.4.5 Silica-based nanomaterials 498
21.4.6 Polymer-based nanomaterials 498
21.5 Conclusion 499
References 500
Further reading 503
22. 3D and 4D nanocomposites 505
Kalyan Vydiam and Sudip Mukherjee
Abbreviations 505
22.1 Introduction 505
22.2 Types of nanocomposites 508
22.2.1 Ceramic nanocomposites 508
22.2.2 Polymer nanocomposites 509
22.2.3 Metallic nanocomposites 509
22.3 Characterization techniques 510
22.3.1 X-ray diffraction 510
22.3.2 Thermogravimetric analysis 510
22.3.3 Transmission electron microscopy 511
22.3.4 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy 511
22.3.5 Four-point probe 512
22.4 Applications 512
22.4.1 Ceramic nanocomposites 512
22.4.2 Polymeric nanocomposites 513
22.4.3 Metallic nanocomposites 515
22.5 Conclusions 517
Acknowledgment 518
References 518
23. Nanodimensional materials: an approach toward the biogenic synthesis 523
Tahmeena Khan, Qazi Inamur Rahman, Saman Raza, Saima Zehra, Naseem Ahmad and Azamal Husen
23.1 Introduction 523
23.2 Biogenic synthesis of nanoparticles 524
23.3 Mechanism of the synthesis of nanoparticles 526
23.4 Factors affecting the synthesis of plant-based nanoparticles 526
23.4.1 pH-dependent effect 527
23.4.2 Role of temperature 527
23.4.3 Incubation period 528
23.4.4 Plant biomass concentration 528
23.5 Some important plant-derived nanoparticles 529
23.5.1 Metal nanoparticles 529
23.5.2 Metal-oxide nanoaprticles 532
23.6 Characterization of nanoparticles 542
23.6.1 UV-VIS absorption spectroscopy 542
23.6.2 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy 544
23.6.3 Transmission electron microscopy 546
23.6.4 Other important characterization techniques 548
23.7 Applications of nanoaprticles 550
23.7.1 Applications of nanoaprticles in medicine 550
23.7.2 Applications of nanoparticles in bioremediation 554
23.8 Conclusion 556
References 556
24. Mycogenic-assisted synthesis of nanoparticles and their efficient applications 569
Noureen Ansari, Qazi Inamur Rahman, Tahmeena Khan, Azhar Khan, Riyazuddeen Khan, Javed Ahmad Wagay and Azamal Husen
24.1 Introduction 569
24.2 The superiority of fungi over other microbes 571
24.3 Mechanisms of fungi-derived nanoparticles 573
24.4 Synthesis of fungal-mediated nanoparticles 574
24.5 Applications of nanoparticles 582
24.5.1 Antimicrobial applications 583
24.5.2 Environmental applications 586
24.5.3 Agricultural applications 587
24.5.4 Miscellaneous applications 588
24.6 Conclusion 589
References 589
25. Green nanomaterials for clean environment: recent advances, challenges, and applications 597
Sumathi Malairajan, Murugan Karuvelan, Jayshree Annamalai, Subashini Rajakannu, Ramachandran Chelliah and Deog-Hawn Oh
25.1 Introduction 597
25.2 Green nanoparticles and their synthesis 598
25.2.1 Bacteria 598
25.2.2 Actinomycetes 602
25.2.3 Viruses 602
25.2.4 Fungi 603
25.2.5 Algae 603
25.2.6 Plants 605
25.3 Green methods in stabilization of green nanoparticles 605
25.4 Charaterization of bio-synthesized nanoparticles 607
25.5 Application of green nanoparticles 607
25.5.1 Environmental 607
25.5.2 Medicine 609
25.5.3 Electrochemistry 609
25.5.4 Biosensing 610
25.6 Advantages and disadvantages of green nanoparticles 610
25.7 Recent advances 611
25.8 Future challenges 611
25.9 Conclusion 612
References 612
26. Smart nanomaterials-environmental safety, risks, legal issues, and management 619
Kalyan Vydiam and Sudip Mukherjee
Abbreviations 619
26.1 Introduction to smart nanomaterials 620
26.1.1 Nanotechnology and nanoparticles 620
26.1.2 Synthesis of nanomaterials 620
26.1.3 Characterization techniques 621
26.1.4 Types of stimuli 621
26.2 Smart nanomaterials in human health and environmental applications 622
26.2.1 Smart nanomaterials for human health applications 622
26.2.2 Smart nanomaterials for environmental applications 623
26.3 Potential risks and safety precautions 624
26.3.1 Potential risks associated with smart nanomaterials 624
26.3.2 Safety precautions for regulating smart nanomaterials 626
26.4 Regulatory network and legal issues 628
26.4.1 Present regulatory network for smart nanomaterials 628
26.4.2 Legal issues with smart nanomaterials 630
26.5 Conclusion 630
Acknowledgment 631
References 631
Index 635
Authors
Azamal Husen Foreign Delegate at Wolaita Sodo University, Wolaita, Ethiopia.Azamal Husen served as Professor and Head of the Department of Biology, University of Gondar, Ethiopia and is a Foreign Delegate at Wolaita Sodo University, Wolaita, Ethiopia. Previously, he was a Visiting Faculty of the Forest Research Institute, and the Doon College of Agriculture and Forest at Dehra Dun, India. Husen's research and teaching experience of 20 years includes biogenic nanomaterial fabrication and application, plant responses to nanomaterials, plant adaptation to harsh environments at the physiological, biochemical, and molecular levels, herbal medicine, and clonal propagation for improvement of tree species. Dr Husen contributed to R&D projects of World Bank, ICAR, ICFRE, JBIC etc. He has >250 publications . He is Series Co-Editor of 'Plant Biology, Sustainability and Climate Change', Elsevier.
Khwaja Salahuddin Siddiqi Emeritus Professor, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. Khwaja Salahuddin Siddiqi graduated as a Master of Science in 1969, a Master of Philosophy in 1971, and a Doctor of Philosophy in 1973 from the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. His specialization is inorganic chemistry. He is a former Chairman and Emeritus Professor of the department of chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He was appointed as a Lecturer in 1974, Reader in 1983, and Professor in 1993. His research interests are coordination chemistry, bioinorganic chemistry, organometallic chemistry, organoborate chemistry, and nanochemistry. Siddiqi has published 190 research papers in different areas of chemistry.
