Detecting and analyzing the COVID-19 pandemic with biosensor technology
The highly contagious SARS CoV-2 pathogen has challenged health systems around the world as they struggle to detect and monitor the spread of the pathogen. In Detection and Analysis of SARS Coronavirus: Advanced Biosensors for Pandemic Viruses and Related Pathogens expert chemists Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain and Sudheesh K. Shukla deliver a practical analysis of how contactless coronavirus detectors may be developed using existing biosensor technology.
The editors outline current challenges in the field, the bioanalytical principles for coronavirus detection, and available biosensor technology. They then move on to how available technology might be adapted to detect coronaviruses and how commercialization of the technology might unfold.
The lessons learned in this book are readily applicable to the study of other current and emerging pathogens.
Readers will also enjoy: - A thorough introduction to the current diagnostic approaches for COVID-19, including common challenges, technology adaptation, and future potential - An exploration of bio-analytical strategies for SARS CoV-2/COVID-19, including COVID detection via nanotechnology, biosensing approaches, and the role of nanotechnology in coronavirus detection - Practical discussions of biosensors for the analysis of SARS CoV-2/COVID-19, including sensor development for coronavirus and chemical sensors for coronavirus diagnosis - In-depth treatments of the commercialization and standardization for analytical technologies
Perfect for virologists, pharmaceutical industry professionals, and sensor developers, Detection and Analysis of SARS Coronavirus is also an indispensable resource for those working in analytical research institutes, biotechnology industry professionals, and public health agency professionals.
Table of Contents
Preface xv
About the Editors xvii
Part I Introduction 1
1 Current Diagnostic Approach for COVID-19 3
Nitika Thakur and Rachit Sood
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Recommended Laboratory Diagnosis for COVID-19 3
1.2.1 SARS-CoV-2 Testing: Detection Approach by Screening Suitable Specimen Cultures 3
1.2.2 SARS-CoV-2 Detection: The Nucleic Acid Approach 4
1.2.2.1 COVID-19 Detection Approach Through Real-Time PCR 4
1.2.2.2 Detection Approach Through Nested RT-PCR 5
1.2.2.3 Detection and Analysis Approach via Droplet Digital PCR 6
1.2.2.4 Lab-on-chip Approaches Using Nucleic Acid as Chief Target Points 6
1.2.2.5 Analysis Through Nanoparticle Amplification Process 7
1.2.2.6 Portable Methodology: The Concept of Benchtop-Sized Analyzer 7
1.3 Antigenic Approach for COVID-19 Diagnosis 8
1.4 Antibody Diagnostic Strategies for Detection of COVID-19 10
1.4.1 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Strategies: The Vircell and Euroimmun ELISA 11
1.4.2 Immunoassay-Based Detection Approach: Immunofluorescence and Chemiluminescence Assay 11
1.5 Point-of-care/Lab-on-chip Approaches: The LFA (Lateral Flow Assay) 12
1.6 Miniaturization Detection Approach: Combining Microarray with Microfluidic Chip Technology 12
1.7 Neutralization Detection Approaches Toward COVID-19 13
1.8 Genomic Sequencing Detection Approach: The Amplicon, Hybrid Capture, and Meta-transcriptomic Strategy 13
1.9 Conclusion 14
References 14
2 COVID-19 Diagnostics: Current Approach, Challenges, and Technology Adaptation 23
Prama Bhattacherjee, Santanu Patra, Abhishek Mishra, Trupti R. Das, Hemlata Dewangan, Rajgourab Ghosh, Sudheesh K. Shukla, and Anshuman Mishra
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Diagnosis of COVID-19 25
2.2.1 Clinical Diagnosis 25
2.2.2 Sample Collection and Testing 26
2.3 Understanding Genetic Consequences 27
2.3.1 SARS-CoV-2 Genome and Database 27
2.3.2 Infection and Genetic Diagnosis 27
2.3.3 Real-Time PCR 27
2.4 Understanding Immunological Consequences 28
2.4.1 Role of Immunological Test 28
2.4.2 Rapid Antigen Testing 29
2.4.3 Rapid Antibody Tests 29
2.5 Protein Testing 29
2.5.1 Computed Tomography 29
2.6 Challenges 30
2.6.1 Challenges of Developing COVID-19 Tests 30
2.6.2 Sample Collection and Tests 31
2.7 Advanced Diagnosis Technologies and Adaptation 31
2.8 Adaptation of a New Approach 31
2.8.1 Emerging Diagnostic Tests for COVID-19 33
2.8.2 Role of siRNA, Nanoparticle Toward COVID-19 33
2.8.3 RT-LAMP Nucleic Acid Testing 34
2.8.4 Point-of-care Testing 34
2.8.5 FNCAS9 Editor-Limited Uniform Detection Assay 34
2.8.6 Development of a Novel Technology for COVID-19 Rapid Test 34
2.8.7 Specific High-Sensitivity Enzymatic Reporter Unlocking 35
2.9 Digital Healthcare Technologies 35
2.9.1 Artificial Intelligence and Mass Healthcare 36
2.9.2 Standard Healthcare Management During Pandemic Crisis 36
2.10 Implications of Technology-Based Diagnosis and Testing 36
2.10.1 Benefit of Diagnosis 37
2.11 Conclusion 37
2.12 Future Prospects 38
Acknowledgment 39
References 39
3 Current Scenario of Pandemic COVID-19: Overview, Diagnosis, and Future Prospective 43
Bindu Mangla, Shinu Chauhan, Shreya Kathuria, Prashant, Mohit, Meenakshi, Santanu Patra, Sudheesh K. Shukla, and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain
3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Diagnosis and Treatment 47
3.3 Infection and Control 49
3.4 Current Status of COVID-19 50
3.5 Recommendation 51
3.6 Conclusion 52
References 53
Part II Bio-analytical Strategies for SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 57
4 COVID Detection via Nanotechnology: A Promising Field in the Diagnosis and Analysis of Novel Coronavirus Infection 59
Nitika Thakur, Sudheesh K. Shukla, and Chaudhery M. Hussain
4.1 Introduction 59
4.1.1 Pandemic Outbreak of COVID-19: A Tour Around the Globe from Wuhan 59
4.1.2 Nanotech Solutions for Faster Detection Analysis of COVID-19 60
4.2 Methodologies from Lab to People: Advantages of Nanovaccines in Providing Point-of-care Diagnosis 60
4.3 An Overview: The Potential Strategies Related to Nanotechnology for Combating COVID-19 61
4.3.1 Loop-Mediated Isothermal Reverse Transcriptase Coupling with Nanobiosensors 62
4.3.2 Nanopoint-of-care/Lab-on-chip Diagnosis: A Strategy to Reach out the Resource-Poor Areas 63
4.3.3 Tagging up the Biosensor with Optics for Reducing the Long Detection Time 63
4.3.4 Sequencing Strategy Involving the Nanopore-Assisted Target Sequencing (NTS) 63
4.4 Screening of Potential Agents for Restricting the Rapid Spread of COVID-19 64
4.5 Potential New Generation Vaccines: A Journey from Nucleoside, Subunit, Peptide Analogs to Nanoformulation 65
4.5.1 Nucleoside Analog Vaccines: Searching Potential Candidates Among DNA, RNA, and mRNA 65
4.5.2 Nano-VLP Subunit Vaccines: A Stable and Ordered Vaccine Complex 67
4.5.3 Nanopeptide-Based Vaccines: “Hitchhiking Through Albumin” 68
4.6 Future Prospective: Resolving the Big Pandemics 68
4.7 Conclusion 69
References 69
5 Biosensing Approach for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 75
Varun Rawat, Sonam, Diksha Gahlot, Kritika Nagpal, and Seema R. Pathak
5.1 Introduction 75
5.2 SARS-COVID-19 Structure and Genome 76
5.3 SARS-COVID-19 Sensors 77
5.3.1 Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR) Sensor 77
5.3.2 Field Effect Transistor (FET) 78
5.3.3 Cell-Based Potentiometric Biosensor 79
5.3.4 eCovSens 79
5.3.5 CRISPR/Cas12 80
5.3.6 DNA Nanoscaffold Hybrid Chain Reaction (DNHCR)-Based Fluorescence Biosensor 81
5.4 Biomarkers 83
5.5 Conclusion 84
References 84
6 Role of Nanotechnology in Coronavirus Detection 87
AbdulGafar O. Tiamiyu, Bashir Adelodun, Hashim O. Bakare, Fidelis O. Ajibade, Kola Y. Kareem, Rahmat G. Ibrahim, Golden Odey, Madhumita Goala, and Jamiu A. Adeniran
6.1 Introduction 87
6.2 Application of Nanomaterials 88
6.2.1 Silver Nanoparticles 88
6.2.2 Gold Nanoparticles 88
6.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes 89
6.3 Nanotechnology and Application in Medicine 90
6.3.1 Biobarriers 90
6.3.2 Molecular Imaging 90
6.3.3 Early Detection 91
6.3.4 Nanodiagnostics 91
6.4 Biosensors for Infectious Disease Detection 92
6.4.1 Biosensors 93
6.4.2 Nano-Based Biosensors 93
6.5 Coronavirus Detection 93
6.5.1 Biosensors for COVID-19 Detection 94
6.5.2 Nano-Based Biosensors for Coronavirus Detection 95
6.6 Emerging Concerns on COVID-19 96
6.6.1 Nanotechnology in COVID-19 ContaminatedWater 97
6.7 Nanotoxicity 98
6.8 Conclusion 98
References 99
Part III Biosensors for Analysis of SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 105
7 Sensor Development for Coronavirus 107
Ranjita D. Tandel, Nagappa L. Teradal, and Sudheesh K. Shukla
7.1 Introduction 107
7.2 Conclusions 118
7.3 Future Perspectives 119
References 119
8 Chemical Sensor for the Diagnosis of Coronavirus 123
Gyandshwar K. Rao, Ashish K. Sengar, and Seema R. Pathak
8.1 Introduction 123
8.2 Multiplexed Nanomaterial-Based Sensor 124
8.3 Nanomaterial-Mediated Paper-Based Sensors 126
8.4 Molecularly Imprinted Polymer-Based Technology 127
8.5 Dual-Functional Plasmonic Photothermal Sensors for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 128
8.6 Zirconium Quantum Dot-Based Chemical Sensors 128
8.7 Calixarene-Functionalized Graphene Oxide-Based Sensors 129
8.8 AlGaN/GaN High Electron Mobility Transistor-Based Sensors 130
8.9 Conclusion 132
References 132
9 Lab on a Paper-Based Device for Coronavirus Biosensing 137
Lucas Felipe de Lima, Ariana de Souza Moraes, Paulo de Tarso Garcia, and William Reis de Araujo
9.1 Paper-Based Technology as Point-of-care Testing Devices 137
9.1.1 Fabrication Methods 140
9.1.2 Main Detection Methods Coupled to PADs 141
9.2 Current Outbreak and Coronavirus Biology 142
9.3 Main Approach Used to COVID-19 Biosensing 144
9.4 Paper-Based Analytical Devices for COVID-19 Diagnostics 145
9.5 Challenges and Perspectives 155
Acknowledgments 156
References 157
Part IV Commercialization and Standardization of Analytical Technologies 163
10 Nanobioengineering Approach for Early Detection of SARS-CoV-2 165
Sidra Rashid, Umay Amara, Khalid Mahmood, Mian H. Nawaz, and Akhtar Hayat
10.1 Introduction 165
10.2 Can Nanobioengineering Stand in the Battle Against SARS-CoV-2? 166
10.3 Sequential and Molecular Data Analysis 167
10.3.1 Role of Nanobioengineering for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 168
10.4 Nanobioengineering-Based Detection of SARS-CoV-2 169
10.4.1 Nucleic Acid-Based Molecular Detection 169
10.4.1.1 Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) 169
10.4.1.2 Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) 172
10.4.2 Protein-Based Detection 172
10.4.3 Lymphopenia-Based Assessment 175
10.4.4 Bioengineered Surfaces for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 177
10.4.5 Nanobioengineered Prototypes 177
10.4.6 Digital Radiographical Biosensing Platforms 177
10.4.7 Other Methods for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 179
10.5 Discussion 179
10.6 Conclusions 180
10.7 Expert Opinion 180
10.8 Future Directions 181
References 181
11 Development of Electrochemical Biosensors for Coronavirus Detection 187
Fulden Ulucan-Karnak, Cansu ˙I. Kuru, and Zeynep Yilmaz-Sercinoglu
11.1 Introduction 187
11.2 Detection of Viral Infections 187
11.2.1 Detection of Virus 187
11.2.1.1 Electron Microscopy 187
11.2.1.2 Viral Culture 188
11.2.2 Detection of Viral DNA/RNA 188
11.2.2.1 Real-Time Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) 188
11.2.2.2 Microarrays 189
11.2.3 Detection of Post-infection Antibodies 189
11.2.3.1 Lateral Flow Immunoassays (LFIAs) 190
11.2.3.2 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) 190
11.2.3.3 Chemiluminescent Immunoassay (CLIA) 191
11.3 Current Biosensor Candidates for COVID-19 Detection 193
11.3.1 Electrochemical Biosensors for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 193
11.3.1.1 Impedimetry 195
11.3.1.2 Potentiometry 196
11.3.1.3 Conductometry 197
11.3.1.4 Voltammetry 197
11.3.1.5 Amperometry 198
11.4 Conclusions 199
References 201
12 Electrochemical Biosensor Fabrication for Coronavirus Testing 207
Monika Vats, Parvin, Mukul Taliyan, and Seema Rani Pathak
12.1 Introduction 207
12.2 Application of Electrochemical Biosensors 209
12.3 Fabrication of Electrochemical Biosensors 210
12.4 Fabrication of Electrochemical Biosensors for COVID-19 (Immunosensors) 212
12.5 Conclusion 214
References 215
Part V Outlook 219
13 Effects of COVID-19: An Environmental Point of View 221
Kola Y. Kareem, Bashir Adelodun, AbdulGafar O. Tiamiyu, Fidelis O. Ajibade, Rahmat G. Ibrahim, Golden Odey, Madhumita Goala, Hashim O. Bakare, and Jamiu A. Adeniran
13.1 Introduction 221
13.2 Methodological Approach 224
13.3 Effects of COVID-19 on Socioeconomic Development in the Environment 225
13.4 Environmental Management as an Important Factor for COVID-19 Transmission 225
13.5 Environmental Impact Assessment of COVID-19 226
13.5.1 Environmental Variables Related to COVID-19 226
13.5.2 Effects of COVID-19 on Global Physical Environment: Air Quality and Environmental Pollution 228
13.5.3 COVID-19 Impacts onWater Resources and Aquatic Life 231
13.5.4 COVID-19 Impacts on Ecological Parameters and Soil Systems 233
13.5.5 COVID-19 Impacts on Noise Pollution, Increased SolidWastes, and Recycling 234
13.5.6 COVID-19 Impacts onWastewater Quality and Sanitary Systems 234
13.5.7 Socioeconomic Environmental Impacts of COVID-19 235
13.5.8 Indirect Effects of COVID-19 on the Environment 235
13.6 Conclusion 236
References 237
14 COVID-19 Pandemic and CO2 Emission in the United States: A Sectoral Analysis 243
Afees A. Salisu, Tirimisiyu F. Oloko, and Idris A. Adediran
14.1 Introduction 243
14.2 Stylized Facts on the Effect of COVID-19 Pandemic on Sectoral CO2 Emission 245
14.3 Data Issues and Methodology 249
14.4 Empirical Results 251
14.4.1 Preliminary Results 251
14.4.2 Main Results 251
14.5 Conclusion 255
References 257
15 Theranostic Approach for Coronavirus 261
Anushree Pandey, Asif Ali, and Yuvraj S. Negi
15.1 Introduction 261
15.2 Conventional Medicines 262
15.3 Role of Nanoparticles in COVID-19 Detection 265
15.4 Reverse Transcription Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (RT-LAMP) Coupled with a Nanoparticle-Based Biosensor (NBS) Assay 265
15.5 Point-of-care Testing 266
15.6 Optical Biosensor Nanotechnology 268
15.7 Nanopore Target Sequencing (NTS) 268
15.8 Role of Nanotechnology in the Treatment 269
15.9 Conclusion 270
References 270
Index 275
