Must-have reference on electronic packaging technology!
The electronics industry is shifting towards system packaging technology due to the need for higher chip circuit density without increasing production costs. Electronic packaging, or circuit integration, is seen as a necessary strategy to achieve a performance growth of electronic circuitry in next-generation electronics. With the implementation of novel materials with specific and tunable electrical and magnetic properties, electronic packaging is highly attractive as a solution to achieve denser levels of circuit integration.
The first part of the book gives an overview of electronic packaging and provides the reader with the fundamentals of the most important packaging techniques such as wire bonding, tap automatic bonding, flip chip solder joint bonding, microbump bonding, and low temperature direct Cu-to-Cu bonding. Part two consists of concepts of electronic circuit design and its role in low power devices, biomedical devices, and circuit integration. The last part of the book contains topics based on the science of electronic packaging and the reliability of packaging technology.
Table of Contents
Preface xi
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Impact of Moore’s Law on Si Technology 3
1.3 5G Technology and AI Applications 4
1.4 3D IC Packaging Technology 7
1.5 Reliability Science and Engineering 11
1.6 The Future of Electronic Packaging Technology 13
1.7 Outline of the Book 14
References 15
Part I 17
2 Cu-to-Cu and Other Bonding Technologies in Electronic Packaging 19
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Wire Bonding 20
2.3 Tape-Automated Bonding 23
2.4 Flip-Chip Solder Joint Bonding 26
2.5 Micro-Bump Bonding 32
2.6 Cu-to-Cu Direct Bonding 35
2.6.1 Critical Factors for Cu-to-Cu Bonding 36
2.6.2 Analysis of Cu-to-Cu Bonding Mechanism 39
2.6.3 Microstructures at the Cu-to-Cu Bonding Interface 46
2.7 Hybrid Bonding 51
2.8 Reliability - Electromigration and Temperature Cycling Tests 54
Problems 56
References 57
3 Randomly-Oriented and (111) Uni-directionally-Oriented Nanotwin Copper 61
3.1 Introduction 61
3.2 Formation Mechanism of Nanotwin Cu 63
3.3 In Situ Measurement of Stress Evolution During Nanotwin Deposition 67
3.4 Electrodeposition of Randomly Oriented Nanotwinned Copper 69
3.5 Formation of Unidirectionally (111)-oriented Nanotwin Copper 71
3.6 Grain Growth in [111]-Oriented nt-Cu 75
3.7 Uni-directional Growth of η-Cu 6 Sn 5 in Microbumps on (111) Oriented nt-Cu 77
3.8 Low Thermal-Budget Cu-to-Cu Bonding Using [111]-Oriented nt-Cu 78
3.9 Nanotwin Cu RDL for Fanout Package and 3D IC Integration 83
Problems 86
References 87
4 Solid-Liquid Interfacial Diffusion Reaction (SLID) Between Copper and Solder 91
4.1 Introduction 91
4.2 Kinetics of Scallop-Type IMC Growth in SLID 93
4.3 A Simple Model for the Growth of Mono-Size Hemispheres 95
4.4 Theory of Flux-Driven Ripening 97
4.5 Measurement of the Nano-channel Width Between Two Scallops 100
4.6 Extremely Rapid Grain Growth in Scallop-Type Cu6Sn5 in Slid 100
Problems 102
References 103
5 Solid-State Reactions Between Copper and Solder 105
5.1 Introduction 105
5.2 Layer-Type Growth of IMC in Solid-State Reactions 106
5.3 Wagner Diffusivity 111
5.4 Kirkendall Void Formation in Cu 3 Sn 113
5.5 Sidewall Reaction to Form Porous Cu 3 Sn in μ-Bumps 114
5.6 Effect of Surface Diffusion on IMC Formation in Pillar-Type
μ-Bumps 120
Problems 124
References 125
Part II 127
6 Essence of Integrated Circuits and Packaging Design 129
6.1 Introduction 129
6.2 Transistor and Interconnect Scaling 131
6.3 Circuit Design and LSI 133
6.4 System-on-Chip (SoC) and Multicore Architectures 139
6.5 System-in-Package (SiP) and Package Technology Evolution 140
6.6 3D IC Integration and 3D Silicon Integration 144
6.7 Heterogeneous Integration: An Introduction 145
Problems 146
References 146
7 Performance, Power, Thermal, and Reliability 149
7.1 Introduction 149
7.2 Field-Effect Transistor and Memory Basics 151
7.3 Performance: A Race in Early IC Design 155
7.4 Trend in Low Power 157
7.5 Trade-off between Performance and Power 159
7.6 Power Delivery and Clock Distribution Networks 160
7.7 Low-Power Design Architectures 163
7.8 Thermal Problems in IC and Package 166
7.9 Signal Integrity and Power Integrity (SI/PI) 168
7.10 Robustness: Reliability and Variability 169
Problems 171
References 172
8 2.5D/3D System-in-Packaging Integration 173
8.1 Introduction 173
8.2 2.5D IC: Redistribution Layer (RDL) and TSV-Interposer 174
8.3 2.5D IC: Silicon, Glass, and Organic Substrates 176
8.4 2.5D IC: HBM on Silicon Interposer 177
8.5 3D IC: Memory Bandwidth Challenge for High-Performance Computing 178
8.6 3D IC: Electrical and Thermal TSVs 180
8.7 3D IC: 3D-Stacked Memory and Integrated Memory Controller 182
8.8 Innovative Packaging for Modern Chips/Chiplets 183
8.9 Power Distribution for 3D IC Integration 186
8.10 Challenge and Trend 187
Problems 188
References 188
Part III 191
9 Irreversible Processes in Electronic Packaging Technology 193
9.1 Introduction 193
9.2 Flow in Open Systems 196
9.3 Entropy Production 198
9.3.1 Electrical Conduction 199
9.3.1.1 Joule Heating 201
9.3.2 Atomic Diffusion 203
9.3.3 Heat Conduction 203
9.3.4 Conjugate Forces When Temperature Is a Variable 205
9.4 Cross-Effects in Irreversible Processes 206
9.5 Cross-Effect Between Atomic Diffusion and Electrical Conduction 207
9.5.1 Electromigration and Stress-Migration in Al Strips 209
9.6 Irreversible Processes in Thermomigration 211
9.6.1 Thermomigration in Unpowered Composite Solder Joints 212
9.7 Cross-Effect Between Heat Conduction and Electrical Conduction 215
9.7.1 Seebeck Effect 216
9.7.2 Peltier Effect 218
Problems 219
References 219
10 Electromigration 221
10.1 Introduction 221
10.2 To Compare the Parameters in Atomic Diffusion and Electric Conduction 222
10.3 Basic of Electromigration 224
10.3.1 Electron Wind Force 225
10.3.2 Calculation of the Effective Charge Number 227
10.3.3 Atomic Flux Divergence Induced Electromigration Damage 228
10.3.4 Back Stress in Electromigration 230
10.4 Current Crowding and Electromigration in 3-Dimensional Circuits 231
10.4.1 Void Formation in the Low Current Density Region 234
10.4.2 Current Density Gradient Force in Electromigration 238
10.4.3 Current Crowding Induced Pancake-Type Void Formation in Flip-Chip Solder Joints 242
10.5 Joule Heating and Heat Dissipation 243
10.5.1 Joule Heating and Electromigration 244
10.5.2 Joule Heating on Mean-Time-to-Failure in Electromigration 245
Problems 245
References 246
11 Thermomigration 249
11.1 Introduction 249
11.2 Driving Force of Thermomigration 249
11.3 Analysis of Heat of Transport, Q* 250
11.4 Thermomigration Due to Heat Transfer Between Neighboring Pairs of Poweredand Unpowered Solder Joints 253
Problems 255
References 255
12 Stress-Migration 257
12.1 Introduction 257
12.2 Chemical Potential in a Stressed Solid 258
12.3 Stoney’s Equation of Biaxial Stress in Thin Films 260
12.4 Diffusional Creep 264
12.5 Spontaneous Sn Whisker Growth at Room Temperature 267
12.5.1 Morphology 267
12.5.2 Measurement of the Driving Force to Grow a Sn Whisker 271
12.5.3 Kinetics of Sn Whisker Growth 272
12.5.4 Electromigration-Induced Sn Whisker Growth in Solder Joints 275
12.6 Comparison of Driving Forces Among Electromigration, Thermomigration, and Stress-Migration 277
12.6.1 Products of Force 278
Problems 279
References 280
13 Failure Analysis 281
13.1 Introduction 281
13.2 Microstructure Change with or Without Lattice Shift 285
13.3 Statistical Analysis of Failure 287
13.3.1 Black’s Equation of MTTF for Electromigration 287
13.3.2 Weibull Distribution Function and JMA Theory of Phase Transformations 289
13.4 A Unified Model of MTTF for Electromigration, Thermomigration, and Stress-Migration 290
13.4.1 Revisit Black’s Equation of MTTF for Electromigration 290
13.4.2 MTTF for Thermomigration 292
13.4.3 MTTF for Stress-Migration 292
13.4.4 The Link Among MTTF for Electromigration, Thermomigration, and Stress-Migration 293
13.4.5 MTTF Equations for Other Irreversible Processes in Open Systems 293
13.5 Failure Analysis in Mobile Technology 293
13.5.1 Joule Heating Enhanced Electromigration Failure of Weak-Link in 2.5D IC Technology 294
13.5.2 Joule Heating Induced Thermomigration Failure Due to Thermal Crosstalk in 2.5D IC Technology 298
Problems 301
References 302
14 Artificial Intelligence in Electronic Packaging Reliability 303
14.1 Introduction 303
14.2 To Change Time-Dependent Event to Time-Independent Event 304
14.3 To Deduce MTTF from Mean Microstructure Change to Failure 305
14.4 Summary 306
Index 307
