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Monitoring for Health Hazards at Work. Edition No. 5

  • Book

  • 464 Pages
  • April 2021
  • John Wiley and Sons Ltd
  • ID: 5840941
MONITORING FOR HEALTH HAZARDS AT WORK

Monitoring for Health Hazards at Work remains the seminal textbook on measuring and ­controlling the risk of workplace exposure to physical, chemical, and biological hazards. Designed for students studying occupational hygiene and exposure science, this comprehensive and accessible volume provides step-by-step guidance on identifying hazards and quantifying their risks in various workplace environments. Complete with checklists and practical examples, the authors present clear explanations of all types of hazards that can arise in the workplace, including dust, particles, fibrous aerosols, gases, vapours, and bioaerosols.

The fifth edition features revised material throughout, and remains an essential resource for students and professionals in occupational hygiene, reflecting global standards and recent developments in monitoring equipment, modelling methods, exposure assessment, and legislation on workplace safety. - Several new or substantially revised chapters cover topics such as human biomonitoring, exposure modelling, hazardous substances, physical agents, evaluating ventilation, PPE, and other control measures- Updated sections discuss the equipment currently available, the importance of risk communication, assessing dermal and inadvertent ingestion exposures, and more- Examines common workplace comfort issues such as noise, vibration, heat and cold, and lighting- Offers practical advice on conducting and presenting risk assessments and reports- Discusses the future of the development and application of hazard measurement equipment and methods

Monitoring for Health Hazards at Work, is required reading for students and professionals in occupational hygiene, environmental health and safety, occupational health and safety, and exposure science.

Table of Contents

List of Figures xviii

Preface xxv

Acknowledgements xxvii

Units and Abbreviations xxviii

Part 1 Introduction 1

Chapter 1 Occupational Hygiene and Risk Assessment 3

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Hazard and Risk 8

1.3 Risk Assessment 9

1.4 The Stages of a Risk Assessment 10

1.4.1 Identify the Hazard 10

1.4.2 Decide Who Might Be Affected and How 11

1.4.3 Evaluate the Risks 11

1.4.4 Take Preventative and Protective Measures 13

1.4.5 Record the Significant Findings 14

1.4.6 Review the Assessment Regularly and Revise It If Necessary 14

1.5 Who Should Carry Out Risk Assessment? 15

References and Further Reading 15

Chapter 2 Identifying Hazards 17

2.1 Introduction 17

2.2 Identifying Hazards 18

2.3 Example of Hazard Identification 20

2.4 Conclusions Arising from a Hazard Assessment 21

References and Further Reading 21

Chapter 3 Exposure, Exposure Routes and Exposure Pathways 23

3.1 Introduction 23

3.2 Exposure Routes 23

3.3 Exposure Pathways 26

3.4 Measuring Exposure 27

3.5 Biological Monitoring 28

3.6 Exposure Assessment: What the Legislation Requires 29

3.7 Conclusions 30

References and Further Reading 31

Chapter 4 The Exposure Context 32

4.1 Context for Measurement 32

4.2 Sources of Hazardous Substances 33

4.3 Dispersion Through the Workroom 34

4.4 Receptor 36

4.5 Jobs and Tasks 37

4.6 Conclusion 38

References and Further Reading 38

Chapter 5 Modelling Exposure 39

5.1 Introduction 39

5.2 Worst‐Case Models 40

5.3 Control Banding and COSHH Essentials 42

5.3.1 Worked Example 44

5.4 Screening Tools Used for Regulation of Chemicals in Europe 46

5.4.1 ECETOC TRA 46

5.4.2 Stoffenmanager.nl 47

5.4.3 Worked Example 48

5.4.4 Overall Reliability of These Tools 49

5.5 The Advanced REACH Tool 49

5.5.1 Bayesian Statistics 49

5.5.2 The ART 50

5.5.3 Worked Example 51

5.6 Conclusions and Prospects 52

References and Further Reading 52

Chapter 6 Why Measure? 54

6.1 Introduction 54

6.2 Reasons for Undertaking Monitoring 54

6.2.1 To Support a Risk Assessment 54

6.2.2 To Assess Compliance with an OEL 55

6.2.3 To Make a Comparison with Existing Data 55

6.2.4 To Provide Baseline Information on the Exposure Distributions Within a Plant 56

6.2.5 Supporting Information for Registration Submissions Under the REACH Regulations 56

6.2.6 Containment Capability Studies 57

6.2.7 To Underpin a Research Study 58

References and Further Reading 58

Chapter 7 How to Carry Out a Survey 59

7.1 Introduction 59

7.2 Planning the Survey 59

7.3 Workplace Monitoring 61

7.4 Monitoring Strategies 63

7.5 Quality Assurance and Quality Control 66

References and Further Reading 68

Chapter 8 Analysis of Measurement Results 69

8.1 Introduction 69

8.2 Dealing with Variability in Measurement Results 69

8.3 Summary Statistics and Data Presentation 71

8.4 Testing Compliance 74

8.4.1 Worked Example 76

8.5 Other Software Tools to Aid Data Analysis 78

References and Further Reading 78

Chapter 9 Introduction to Control 80

9.1 Introduction 80

9.2 Specific Control Measures 81

9.2.1 Elimination 82

9.2.2 Substitution 82

9.2.3 Total Enclosure 83

9.2.4 Technological Solutions 84

9.2.5 Segregation 84

9.2.6 Partial Enclosure 85

9.2.7 Local Ventilation 85

9.2.8 General Ventilation 86

9.2.9 Personal Protective Equipment 87

9.3 The Effectiveness of Control Measures 87

References and Further Reading 88

Chapter 10 The Importance of Good Records and How to Write a Survey Report 89

10.1 Record, Educate and Influence 89

10.2 Measurement Records 90

10.3 Survey Reports 92

10.3.1 General Principles of Writing a Good Report 92

10.3.2 Report Structure 93

10.3.3 Common Pitfalls and Administrative Points 96

References and Further Reading 96

Chapter 11 Risk Assessment 98

11.1 Introduction 98

11.2 Identify All Hazardous Substances or Agents 100

11.3 Identify the Likely Levels of Exposure 100

11.4 Identify All Persons Likely to be Exposed 102

11.5 Assess Whether the Exposures are Likely to Cause Harm 102

11.6 Consider Elimination or Substitution 103

11.7 Define Additional Control Measures Necessary to Reduce the Harm to Acceptable Levels 104

References and Further Reading 105

Chapter 12 Risk Communication 107

12.1 Introduction 107

12.2 Risk Perception 108

12.3 Trust 110

12.4 Principles of Good Risk Communication 110

12.4.1 Know Your Constraints Before You Start 111

12.4.2 Define the Role of the Communicator 111

12.4.3 Research Your Audience 111

12.4.4 Timing 112

12.5 The Presentation 112

12.6 Communicating Risk 114

12.7 Quantitative Risk Assessment to Aid Risk Communication 115

References and Further Reading 117

Part 2 Hazardous Substances 119

Chapter 13 An Introduction to Hazardous Substances 121

13.1 Introduction 121

13.2 The Complexities of Modern Workplaces 122

13.3 The Top Five Hazardous Carcinogens 123

13.4 Substances of Concern for the Respiratory System 123

13.5 Pesticides, Pharmaceuticals and Other Biologically Active Substances 124

13.6 Organic Chemicals 125

13.7 Summary 126

References and Further Reading 126

Chapter 14 Dust, Particles and Fibrous Aerosols 128

14.1 Introduction 128

14.2 Airborne Particulate Matter 128

14.3 Fibres 131

14.4 Measurement of Airborne Particulate and Fibre Concentrations 133

14.4.1 Filters 134

14.4.2 Filter Holders and Sampling Heads 135

14.5 Measurement of Flow Rate 139

14.6 Pumps 141

14.7 Direct‐Reading Aerosol Monitors 142

14.8 Flow Rate Measurement Using a Rotameter or Electronic Flow Calibrator by Using the Soap Bubble Method 144

14.9 The Measurement of Inhalable Airborne Dust 146

14.9.1 Equipment Required 146

14.9.2 Method 147

14.9.3 Calculations 149

14.9.4 Possible Problems 149

14.10 The Measurement of Airborne Respirable Dust by Using a Cyclone Sampler 150

14.10.1 Equipment Required 150

14.10.2 Method 150

14.10.3 Calculations 151

14.10.4 Possible Problems 151

14.11 Measurement of Nanoparticles 151

14.12 The Sampling and Counting of Airborne Asbestos Fibres 152

14.12.1 Equipment Required for Sampling 154

14.12.2 Method for Sampling 154

14.12.3 Fibre Counting and Generating Concentration Data 154

14.12.4 Method of Evaluation 155

14.12.5 Calculations 156

14.12.6 Possible Problems 157

14.13 The Choice of Filter and Filter Holder to Suit a Specific Dust, Fume or Mist 157

14.14 To Trace the Behaviour of a Dust Cloud by Using a Tyndall Beam 159

14.14.1 Equipment Required 159

14.14.2 Method 160

Note 160

References and Further Reading 160

Chapter 15 Gases and Vapours 163

15.1 Introduction 163

15.2 Collection Devices 167

15.2.1 Adsorption Methods 167

15.2.2 Adsorbent Tubes 169

15.2.3 Passive Samplers 171

15.2.4 Colorimetric Detector Tubes 172

15.3 Containers 174

15.4 Direct‐Reading Instruments 174

15.5 To Measure Personal Exposure to Solvent Vapours Using an Adsorbent Tube 176

15.5.1 Equipment Required 176

15.5.2 Method 177

15.5.3 Calculations 177

15.5.4 Example 178

References and Further Reading 179

Chapter 16 Bioaerosols 181

16.1 Introduction 181

16.2 Classification of Microorganisms 182

16.3 Viruses 183

16.4 Bacteria 184

16.5 Moulds and Yeasts 186

16.6 Allergens 187

16.7 Principles of Containment 187

16.8 Monitoring Bioaerosols 188

16.9 Measurement of Endotoxins and Allergens 192

16.10 Interpretation of Sample Results 193

References and Further Reading 194

Chapter 17 Dermal and Inadvertent Ingestion Exposure 196

17.1 Introduction 196

17.2 Occupations Where Dermal Exposure is Important 197

17.3 Local and Systemic Effects 198

17.4 How Do We Know If Dermal Exposure is an Issue? 199

17.5 What Do We Measure? 200

17.6 Methods for Dermal Exposure Measurement 202

17.7 Sampling Strategy 205

17.8 Liquids and Solids 207

17.9 Biomonitoring and Modelling of Dermal Exposure 208

17.10 From Exposure to Uptake 209

17.11 Controlling Dermal Exposure 210

17.12 Inadvertent Ingestion Exposure 211

References and Further Reading 214

Chapter 18 Human Biomonitoring 217

18.1 Introduction 217

18.2 Selection of a Suitable HBM Method 218

18.3 Examples of HBM 220

18.4 Study Protocols 221

18.5 Interpretation of HBM Data 222

References and Further Reading 224

Part 3 Physical Agents 225

Chapter 19 An Introduction to Physical Agents 227

19.1 Introduction 227

19.2 Physical Agents in the Workplace 228

19.3 Noise and Vibration 229

19.4 Thermal Environment 230

19.5 Ionising and Non‐ionising Radiation 231

References and Further Reading 232

Chapter 20 Noise 233

20.1 Introduction 233

20.2 Frequency 234

20.3 Duration 236

20.4 Occupational Exposure Limits 237

20.5 Pressure and Magnitude of Pressure Variation 238

20.6 Equipment Available 239

20.7 Sound Level Metres and Personal Noise Dosimeters 239

20.8 Personal Noise Dosimeters 243

20.9 Calibration 245

20.10 Collecting Noise Measurements 247

20.10.1 Using an SLM 247

20.10.2 Results 248

20.11 To Measure Workplace Noise Using a PND 249

20.11.1 Using a PND 249

20.11.2 Results 250

20.11.3 Possible Complications 250

20.12 To Measure the Spectrum of a Continuous Noise by Octave Band Analysis 251

20.12.1 Collecting a Spectrum of a Continuous Noise by Octave Band Analysis 252

20.12.2 Results 252

20.13 To Determine the Degree of Noise Exposure and the Actions to Take 254

Note 255

References and Further Reading 255

Chapter 21 Vibration 257

21.1 Introduction 257

21.2 Vibration 259

21.3 Occupational Exposure Limits 261

21.4 Risk Assessment 262

21.5 Measurements and Measurement Equipment 262

21.6 Hand-Arm Vibration Measurement Calculations 264

21.6.1 Reporting of Vibration

Exposure Data 265

21.7 Control of Vibration 266

References and Further Reading 267

Chapter 22 Heat and Cold 269

22.1 Introduction 269

22.2 Heat Stress 272

22.3 Measurement Equipment 275

22.3.1 Dry Bulb Thermometers 275

22.3.2 Wet-bulb Thermometers 275

22.3.3 Air Speed 276

22.3.4 Globe Thermometer 276

22.3.5 Integrating WBGT Instruments 276

22.4 Personal Physiological Monitoring 277

22.5 Measurement of the Thermal Environment 279

22.6 Predicted Heat Strain Index 281

22.7 Risk Assessment Strategy 282

22.8 Control of Hot Environments 283

22.9 Thermal Comfort 285

22.10 Cold Environments 286

22.11 To Calculate the Wind Chill Factor 288

22.11.1 Procedure 288

References and Further Reading 289

Chapter 23 Lighting 290

23.1 Introduction 290

23.2 Lighting Standards 293

23.3 Equipment Available 293

23.4 Calibration 293

23.5 To Measure Lighting 294

23.5.1 Aim 294

23.5.2 Equipment Required 294

23.5.3 Method 295

23.5.4 Possible Problems 296

23.5.5 Results and Comparison with Guidance 297

23.5.6 Reporting 297

23.6 Control 298

References and Further Reading 299

Chapter 24 Ionising Radiation 301

24.1 Introduction 301

24.2 Ionising Radiation 302

24.3 Background Radiation 303

24.4 Basic Concepts and Quantities 304

24.5 Types of Radiation 306

24.6 Energy 307

24.7 Activity 307

24.8 Radiation Dose Units 308

24.8.1 Absorbed Dose and Dose Equivalent 308

24.8.2 To Calculate Dose Equivalent 309

24.8.3 Dose Rate 309

24.9 Dose Limits 310

24.10 Derived Limits 311

24.11 Procedures to Minimise Occupational Dose 311

24.12 Personal Dosimetry and Medical Surveillance 313

24.12.1 Monitoring of Ionising Radiation in Work Areas 314

24.12.2 Personal Monitoring for External Dose 316

24.12.3 Film Badge Dosimeter 317

24.12.3.1 Advantages of the Film Badge Dosimeter 317

24.12.3.2 Disadvantages 318

24.12.4 Thermoluminescent Dosimeter 318

24.12.4.1 Advantages Thermoluminescent Dosimeter 318

24.12.4.2 Disadvantages 318

24.12.5 Direct‐Reading Monitors 319

24.12.5.1 Disadvantages of Direct‐reading Monitors 319

24.12.6 Air Monitoring 319

References and Further Reading 320

Chapter 25 Non‐Ionising Radiation 321

25.1 Introduction 321

25.2 Ultraviolet Radiation 323

25.3 Visible and Infrared Radiation 325

25.4 Blue Light 326

25.5 Microwaves, Radiowaves and Low‐frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields 327

25.6 Lasers 329

References and Further Reading 330

Part 4 Control of Hazards 333

Chapter 26 Assessing the Effectiveness of Exposure Controls 335

26.1 Introduction 335

26.2 The Effectiveness of Control Measures 336

26.2.1 Elimination and Substitution 336

26.2.1.1 Case Study: Replacement of Trichloroethylene for Cleaning Textiles 336

26.2.2 Ventilation and Control Measures at Source 337

26.2.2.1 Case Study: Enclosure of Beryllium Processing 338

26.2.3 Personal Protective Equipment 339

26.2.4 Using Effectiveness Data 340

26.2.4.1 Case Study: Loading Pharmaceuticals into a Process Vessel 341

26.3 Measuring Exposure to Assess the Effectiveness of Controls 342

26.3.1 Case Study: Use of Push‐Pull Ventilation in Hand Soldering 342

References and Further Reading 344

Chapter 27 Assessing Local Ventilation Control Systems 345

27.1 Introduction 345

27.2 Air Pressure 346

27.2.1 Static Pressure (ps) 346

27.2.2 Velocity Pressure (pv) 347

27.2.3 Total Pressure (pt) 347

27.3 Measurement Equipment 347

27.3.1 Pressure‐Measuring Instruments 347

27.3.2 Air Velocity Measuring Instruments 349

27.3.2.1 Vane Anemometers 350

27.3.2.2 Heated Sensor Anemometers 351

27.3.2.3 Velocity Pressure Devices 352

27.3.2.4 Smoke Tube Kit 354

27.3.2.5 Calibration 355

27.3.2.6 Tyndall Beam 355

27.3.3 Barometric Pressure Instruments 355

27.4 Ventilation Measurement Records 355

27.5 Measurement of Air Flow in Ducts 359

27.5.1 Aim 359

27.5.2 Equipment Required 359

27.5.3 Method 360

27.5.4 Calculation 363

27.5.5 Example 364

27.5.6 Possible Problems 365

27.6 Measurement of Pressure in Ventilation Systems 366

27.6.1 Aim 366

27.6.2 Equipment Required 366

27.6.3 Method 366

27.6.4 Results 367

27.6.5 Possible Problems 368

27.7 To Measure the Face Velocity on a Booth, Hood or Fume Cupboard 368

27.7.1 Aim 368

27.7.2 Equipment Required 369

27.7.3 Method 369

27.7.4 Results 370

27.7.5 Possible Problems 370

References and Further Reading 370

Chapter 28 Personal Protective Equipment 372

28.1 Introduction 372

28.2 Components of An Effective PPE Programme 372

28.2.1 Assessment of Risks and Identification of Where Control is Required 373

28.2.2 Implement All Feasible Controls 373

28.2.3 Identify Who Needs Residual Protection 374

28.2.4 Inform Wearers of the Consequences of Exposure 374

28.2.5 Select PPE Adequate to Control Residual Exposure 374

28.2.5.1 Case Study 376

28.2.6 Involve Wearers in the PPE Selection Process 377

28.2.7 Match PPE to Each Individual Wearer 377

28.2.8 Carry Out Objective Fit‐Tests of RPE 378

28.2.9 Ensure That PPE Does not Exacerbate or Create Risks 378

28.2.10 Ensure PPE are Mutually Compatible 381

28.2.11 Train Wearers in the Correct Use of Their PPE 381

28.2.12 Supervise Wearers to Ensure Correct Use of PPE 382

28.2.13 Maintain PPE in Efficient and Hygienic Condition 383

28.2.14 Inspect PPE to Ensure it is Correctly Maintained 383

28.2.15 Provide Suitable Storage Facilities for PPE 383

28.2.16 Record Maintenance and Inspection Data 384

28.2.17 Monitor Programme to Ensure its Continuing Effectiveness 384

References and Further Reading 384

Part 5 The Future 387

Chapter 29 Monitoring for Hazards at Work in the Future 389

29.1 What the Future Holds for Monitoring Hazards at Work 389

References and Further Reading 393

Appendix: Survey checklists 395

Equipment Suppliers 403

Chemical Analytical Services 405

Index 407

Authors

John Cherrie Sean Semple Marie Coggins