+353-1-416-8900REST OF WORLD
+44-20-3973-8888REST OF WORLD
1-917-300-0470EAST COAST U.S
1-800-526-8630U.S. (TOLL FREE)

Biodiesel Production. Feedstocks, Catalysts, and Technologies. Edition No. 1

  • Book

  • 432 Pages
  • June 2022
  • John Wiley and Sons Ltd
  • ID: 5841109
An incisive discussion of biofuel production from an economically informed technical perspective that addresses sustainability and commercialization together

In Biodiesel Production: Feedstocks, Catalysts and Technologies, renowned chemists Drs Rokhum, Halder, Ngaosuwan and Assabumrungrat present an up-to-date account of the most recent developments, challenges, and trends in biodiesel production. The book addresses select feedstocks, including edible and non-edible oils, waste cooking oil, microalgae, and animal fats, and highlights their advantages and disadvantages from a variety of perspectives. It also discusses several catalysts used in each of their methods of preparation, as well as their synthesis, reactivity, recycling techniques, and stability.

The contributions explore recently developed technologies for sustainable production of biodiesel and provides robust treatments of their sustainability, commercialization, and their prospects for future biodiesel production. - A thorough introduction to the various catalysts used in the preparation of biodiesel and their characteristics - Comprehensive explorations of biofuel production from technical and economic perspectives, with complete treatments of their sustainability and commercialization - Practical discussions of the development of new strategies for sustainable and economically viable biodiesel production - In-depth examinations of biodiesel feedstocks, catalysts, and technologies

Perfect for academic researchers and industrial scientists working in fields that involve biofuels, bioenergy, catalysis, and materials science, Biodiesel Production: Feedstocks, Catalysts and Technologies will also earn a place in the libraries of bioenergy regulators.

Table of Contents

Preface xv

List of Contributors xvii

An Overview of Biodiesel Production xxi

Part 1 Biodiesel Feedstocks 1

1 Advances in Production of Biodiesel from Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats 3
Umer Rashid and Balkis Hazmi

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 History of the Use of Vegetable Oil in Biodiesel 6

1.3 Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production 6

1.3.1 Generations of Biodiesel 7

1.3.2 First-Generation Biodiesel 7

1.3.3 Second-Generation Biodiesel 8

1.3.4 Third-Generation Biodiesel 8

1.4 Basics of the Transesterification Reaction 8

1.5 Variables Affecting Transesterification Reaction 10

1.6 Alkaline-Catalyzed Transesterification 10

1.7 Acid-Catalyzed Transesterification 15

1.8 Enzymatic-Catalyzed Transesterification 16

1.9 Fuel Properties and Quality Specifications for Biodiesel 19

1.10 Conclusion 20

References 21

2 Green Technologies in Valorization of Waste Cooking Oil to Biodiesel 33
Bisheswar Karmakar and Gopinath Halder

2.1 Introduction 33

2.1.1 The Necessity for Biodiesel 33

2.1.2 Sourcing the Correct Precursor 33

2.2 Importance of Valorization 35

2.3 Purification and Characterization 35

2.4 Transesterification: A Comprehensive Look 36

2.5 Conversion Techniques 37

2.5.1 Traditional Conversion Approaches 38

2.5.1.1 Acid Catalysis 38

2.5.1.2 Alkali Catalysis 38

2.5.1.3 Enzyme Catalysis 40

2.5.1.4 Other Novel Heterogeneous Catalysts 40

2.5.1.5 Two-Step Catalyzed Process 41

2.5.2 Modern Conversion Approaches 41

2.5.2.1 Supercritical Fluids 41

2.5.2.2 Microwave Irradiation 43

2.5.2.3 Ultrasonication 43

2.6 Economics and Environmental Impact 44

2.7 Conclusion and Perspectives 45

References 45

3 Non-edible Oils for Biodiesel Production: State of the Art and Future

Perspectives 49
Valeria D’Ambrosio, Enrico Scelsi, and Carlo Pastore

3.1 Introduction 49

3.2 Vegetable Non-edible Oils 50

3.2.1 General Cultivation Data 50

3.2.2 Composition and Chemical-Physical Properties of Biodiesel Obtained from Non-edible Vegetable Oils 50

3.2.3 Biodiesel Production from Non-edible Vegetable Oil 54

3.2.3.1 Extraction Methods 54

3.2.3.2 Biodiesel Production 57

3.2.4 Criticisms Related to Non-edible Oils 57

3.3 Future Perspectives of Non-edible Oils: Oils from Waste 58

3.4 Conclusion 60

Acknowledgments 61

References 61

4 Algal Oil as a Low-Cost Feedstock for Biodiesel Production 67
Michael Van Lal Chhandama, Kumudini Belur Satyan, and Samuel Lalthazuala Rokhum

4.1 Introduction 67

4.1.1 Microalgae for Biodiesel Production 68

4.2 Lipid and Biosynthesis of Lipid in Microalgae 70

4.2.1 Lipid Biosynthesis 71

4.2.2 Lipid Extraction 72

4.3 Optimization of Lipid Production in Microalgae 73

4.3.1 Nitrogen Stress 73

4.3.2 Phosphorous Stress 73

4.3.3 pH Stress 74

4.3.4 Temperature Stress 74

4.3.5 Light 75

4.4 Conclusion 75

References 76

Part 2 Different Catalysts Used in Biodiesel Production 83

5 Homogeneous Catalysts Used in Biodiesel Production 85
Bidangshri Basumatary, Biswajit Nath, and Sanjay Basumatary

5.1 Introduction 85

5.2 Transesterification in Biodiesel Synthesis 86

5.3 Homogeneous Catalyst in Biodiesel Synthesis 88

5.3.1 Homogeneous Acid Catalyst 88

5.3.2 Homogeneous Base Catalyst 90

5.4 Properties of Biodiesel Produced by Homogeneous Acid and Base-Catalyzed Reactions 93

5.5 Relevance of Homogeneous Acid and Base Catalysts in Biodiesel Synthesis 96

5.6 Conclusion 96

References 97

6 Application of Metal Oxides Catalyst in Production of Biodiesel 103
Hui li

6.1 Basic Metal Oxide 103

6.1.1 Monobasic Metal Oxide 103

6.1.1.1 Alkaline Earth Metal Oxide 103

6.1.1.2 Transition Metal Oxide 105

6.1.2 Multibasic Metal Oxide 105

6.1.2.1 Supported on Metal Oxide 106

6.1.2.2 Supported on Activated Carbon 106

6.1.2.3 Supported on Metal Organic Framework 107

6.1.3 Active Site-Doped Basic Metal Oxide 107

6.1.3.1 Alkali Metal Doped 107

6.1.3.2 Active Metal Oxide Doped 107

6.1.4 Mechanism of Transesterification Catalyzed by Basic Metal Oxide 108

6.2 Acid Metal Oxide 108

6.2.1 Monoacid Metal Oxide 109

6.2.2 Multiacid Metal Oxide 109

6.2.3 Supported on Metal Organic Framework 112

6.2.4 Mechanism of Transesterification/Esterification Catalyzed by Acid Metal Oxide 112

6.3 Deactivation of Metal Oxide 113

References 114

7 Supported Metal/Metal Oxide Catalysts in Biodiesel Production 119
Pratibha Agrawal and Samuel Lalthazuala Rokhum

7.1 Introduction 119

7.2 Supported Catalyst 120

7.3 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on Alumina 120

7.4 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on Zeolite 123

7.5 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on ZnO 125

7.6 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on Silica 127

7.7 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on Biochar 128

7.7.1 Solid Acid Catalysts 129

7.7.2 Solid Alkali Catalysts 129

7.8 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on Metal Organic Frameworks 131

7.9 Metal/Metal Oxide Supported on Magnetic Nanoparticles 134

7.10 Summary 135

References 136

8 Mixed Metal Oxide Catalysts in Biodiesel Production 143
Brandon Lowe, Jabbar Gardy, Kejun Wu, and Ali Hassanpour

8.1 Introduction 143

8.2 Previous Research 144

8.3 State of the Art 150

8.3.1 Solid Acid MMO Catalysts 150

8.3.2 Solid Base MMO Catalysts 150

8.3.3 Solid Bifunctional MMO Catalysts 156

8.4 Discussion 157

8.5 Conclusion 161

8.6 Symbols and Nomenclature 162

References 162

9 Nanocatalysts in Biodiesel Production 167
Avinash P. Ingle, Rahul Bhagat, Mangesh P. Moharil, Samuel Lalthazuala Rokhum, Shreshtha Saxena, and S. R. Kalbande

9.1 Introduction 167

9.2 Transesterification of Vegetable Oils 169

9.3 Conventional Catalysts Used in Biodiesel Production: Advantages and Limitations 171

9.3.1 Homogeneous Catalysts 171

9.3.2 Heterogeneous Catalysts 172

9.3.3 Biocatalysts 173

9.4 Role of Nanotechnology in Biodiesel Production 173

9.5 Different Nanocatalysts in Biodiesel Production 173

9.5.1 Metal-Based Nanocatalysts 174

9.5.2 Carbon-Based Nanocatalysts 175

9.5.3 Zeolites/Nanozeolites 180

9.5.4 Magnetic Nanocatalysts 182

9.5.5 Nanoclays 184

9.5.6 Other Nanocatalysts 184

9.6 Conclusion 185

Acknowledgment 185

References 185

10 Sustainable Production of Biodiesel Using Ion-Exchange Resin Catalysts 193
Naomi Shibasaki-Kitakawa and Kousuke Hiromori

10.1 Introduction 193

10.2 Features of Ion-Exchange Resin Catalysts 194

10.3 Cation-Exchange Resin Catalyst 194

10.3.1 Notes of Caution When Comparing the Activity of Resins with Different Properties 194

10.3.2 Reversible Reduction of Resin Catalytic Activity by Water 196

10.3.3 Search for Operating Conditions for Maximum Productivity Rather than Maximum Catalytic Activity 198

10.3.4 Challenges Regarding One-Step Reaction with Simultaneous Esterification and Transesterification Catalyzed by Cation-Exchange Resin 198

10.4 Anion-Exchange Resin Catalysts 199

10.4.1 Requirements for High Catalytic Activity in the Transesterification of Triglycerides 199

10.4.2 Analysis of Previous Studies 201

10.4.3 Decreased Catalytic Activity and Regeneration Method 203

10.4.4 Additional Functions Unique to Anion-Exchange Resins 204

10.5 Summary 204

References 205

11 Advances in Bifunctional Solid Catalysts for Biodiesel Production 209
Bishwajit Changmai, Michael Van Lal Chhandama, Chhangte Vanlalveni, Andrew E.H. Wheatley, and Samuel Lalthazuala Rokhum

11.1 Introduction 209

11.2 Application of Solid Bifunctional Catalyst in Biodiesel Production 210

11.2.1 Acid-Base Bifunctional Catalysts 210

11.2.1.1 Oxides of Acid-Base 211

11.2.1.2 Acid-Base Hydrides 213

11.2.2 Bifunctional Acid Catalyst 217

11.2.2.1 Bifunctional Brønsted-Lewis Acid Oxides 217

11.2.2.2 Heteropolyacid-Based Bifunctional Catalyst 220

11.2.3 Biowaste-Derived Bifunctional Catalyst 222

11.3 Summary and Concluding Remarks 224

Acknowledgment 225

References 225

12 Application of Catalysts Derived from Renewable Resources in Production of Biodiesel 229
Kanokwan Ngaosuwan, Apiluck Eiad-ua, Atthapon Srifa, Worapon Kiatkittipong, Weerinda Appamana, Doonyapong Wongsawaeng, Armando T. Quitain, and Suttichai Assabumrungrat

12.1 Introduction 229

12.2 Potential Renewable Resources for Production of Biodiesel Catalysts 230

12.2.1 Animal Resources 230

12.2.1.1 Eggshells (Chicken and Ostrich) 231

12.2.1.2 Seashells (Snail, Mussel, Oyster, and Capiz) 231

12.2.1.3 Bones 233

12.2.2 Plant Resources 233

12.2.2.1 Carbon-Supported Catalysts 233

12.2.2.2 Silica-Supported Catalysts 236

12.2.2.3 Other Potential Elements from Plant Residues 236

12.2.3 Natural Resources 236

12.2.3.1 Dolomitic Rock (Calcined Dolomite and Modified Dolomite) 236

12.2.3.2 Lime 237

12.2.3.3 Natural Clays 237

12.2.3.4 Zeolites 238

12.2.4 Industrial Waste Resources 240

12.2.4.1 Food Industry Wastes 240

12.2.4.2 Mining Industry Wastes 240

12.3 Advantages, Disadvantages, and Challenges of These Types of Catalyst for Biodiesel Production 242

Acknowledgment 243

References 243

13 Biodiesel Production Using Ionic Liquid-Based Catalysts 249
B. Sangeetha and G. Baskar

13.1 Introduction 249

13.2 Mechanism of IL-Catalyzed Biodiesel Production 250

13.3 Acidic and Basic Ionic Liquids (AILs/BILs) as Catalyst in Biodiesel Production 250

13.4 Supported Ionic Liquids in Biodiesel Production 251

13.5 IL Lipase Cocatalysts 255

13.6 Optimization and Novel Biodiesel Production Technologies Using ILs 257

13.7 Recyclability of the Ionic Liquids on Biodiesel Production 259

13.7.1 Recovery of ILs 259

13.7.2 Reuse of Ionic Liquids 260

13.8 Kinetics of IL-Catalyzed Biodiesel Production 260

13.9 Techno-Economic Analysis and Environmental Impact Analysisof Biodiesel Production Using Ionic Liquid as Catalyst 261

13.10 Conclusion 262

References 263

14 Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) as Versatile Catalysts for Biodiesel Synthesis 269
Vasudeva Rao Bakuru, Marilyn Esclance DMello, and Suresh Babu Kalidindi

14.1 Introduction 269

14.1.1 Metal-Containing Secondary Building Units 271

14.1.2 Organic Linker 272

14.1.3 Pore Volume 272

14.2 Biodiesel Synthesis Over MOF Catalysts 273

14.2.1 Transesterification Reaction 274

14.2.1.1 Transesterification at SBUs of MOFs 274

14.2.1.2 Transesterification at Linker Active Sites 276

14.2.2 Esterification of Carboxylic Acids 277

14.2.2.1 Esterification of Carboxylic Acids at SBUs of MOFs 277

14.2.2.2 Esterification of Carboxylic Acids at Linker Active Sites 279

14.2.2.3 Esterification at Pore Volume (Guest Incorporation) 280

14.3 Conclusion 281

References 281

Part 3 Technologies, By-product Valorization and Prospects of Biodiesel Production 285

15 Upstream Strategies (Waste Oil Feedstocks, Nonedible Oils, and Unicellular Oil Feedstocks like Microalgae) 287
Aleksandra Sander and Ana Petračić

15.1 Introduction 287

15.1.1 Classification of Biodiesel 287

15.1.2 Commercial Production of Biodiesel 288

15.2 Biodiesel Feedstocks 290

15.2.1 Edible Oils as Feedstock for Biodiesel Production 291

15.2.2 Nonedible Oils as Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production 292

15.2.3 Waste Feedstocks (Waste Cooking Oils, Waste Animal Fats, Waste Coffee Ground Oil, Olive Pomace) 292

15.2.4 Unicellular Oil Feedstocks (Microalgae, Yeasts, Cyanobacteria) 293

15.3 Composition of Oils and Fats 293

15.4 Methods for Oil Extraction 294

15.4.1 Mechanical Extraction 294

15.4.2 Solvent Extraction 295

15.4.3 Enzymatic Extraction 296

15.5 Purification of Oils and Fats 297

15.5.1 Deacidification 297

15.5.2 Winterization 298

15.5.3 Demetallization 298

15.5.4 Degumming 298

15.6 Production of Biodiesel 299

15.6.1 Catalysts for Biodiesel Production 300

15.6.2 Homogeneous Catalysts 300

15.6.3 Heterogeneous Catalysts 301

15.7 Future Prospects 302

References 302

16 Mainstream Strategies for Biodiesel Production 311
Narita Chanthon, Nattawat Petchsoongsakul, Kanokwan Ngaosuwan, Worapon Kiatkittipong, Doonyapong Wongsawaeng, Weerinda Appamana, and Suttichai Assabumrungrat

16.1 Introduction 311

16.2 Mainstream Strategies and Technology for Biodiesel Production 312

16.2.1 Current Mainstream Operation 312

16.2.1.1 Batch Mode 312

16.2.1.2 Continuous Mode 312

16.2.2 Process Mainstream for Biodiesel Production Based on the Reactor Types 313

16.2.2.1 Rotating Reactor 313

16.2.2.2 Tubular Flow Reactor 315

16.2.2.3 Cavitational Reactor 317

16.2.2.4 Microwave Reactor 318

16.2.2.5 Multifunctional Reactor (Reactive Distillation, Membrane, Centrifugal Reactors) 319

16.2.2.6 Other Process Intensification 322

16.3 Future Prospects and Challenges 323

Acknowledgment 327

References 327

17 Downstream Strategies for Separation, Washing, Purification, and Alcohol Recovery in Biodiesel Production 331
Ramón Piloto-Rodríguez and Yosvany Díaz-Domínguez

17.1 Introduction 331

17.1.1 Factors Affecting Biodiesel Yield 332

17.1.2 Transesterification Reaction Conditions 332

17.1.3 Separation After FAME Conversion 332

17.1.4 Washing 334

17.2 Glycerol Separation and Refining 336

17.3 Membrane Reactors 337

17.4 Methanol Recovery 339

17.5 Additization 339

17.6 Conclusion 342

References 343

18 Heterogeneous Catalytic Routes for Bio-glycerol-Based Acrylic Acid Synthesis 345
Nittan Singh, Pavan Narayan Kalbande, and Putla Sudarsanam

18.1 Introduction 345

18.2 Acrylic Acid Synthesis from Propylene 346

18.3 Acrylic Acid Synthesis from Glycerol 346

18.3.1 Glycerol Dehydration to Acrolein 347

18.3.2 Acrylic Acid Synthesis from Glycerol 349

18.4 Conclusion 351

Acknowledgments 353

References 353

19 Sustainability, Commercialization, and Future Prospects of Biodiesel Production 355
Pothiappan Vairaprakash, and Arumugam Arumugam

19.1 Introduction 355

19.2 Biodiesel as a Promising Renewable Energy Carrier 356

19.3 Overview of the Biodiesel Production Process 358

19.4 Evolution in the Feedstocks Used for the Sustainable Production of Biodiesel 359

19.5 First-Generation Biodiesel and the Challenges in Its Sustainability 359

19.6 Development of Second-Generation Biodiesel to Address the Sustainability 361

19.7 Algae-Based Biodiesel 362

19.8 Waste Oils, Grease, and Animal Fats in Biodiesel Production 363

19.9 Technical Impact by the Biodiesel Usage 363

19.10 Socioeconomic Impacts 364

19.11 Toxicological Impact 364

19.12 Sustainability Challenges in the Biodiesel Production and Use 365

19.13 Concluding Remarks 366

References 366

20 Advanced Practices in Biodiesel Production 377
Trinath Biswal, Krushna Prasad Shadangi, and Rupam Kataki

20.1 Introduction 377

20.2 Mechanism of Transesterification 378

20.3 Advanced Biodiesel Production Technologies 379

20.3.1 Production of Biodiesel Using Membrane Reactor 379

20.3.1.1 Principle 379

20.3.2 Microwave-Assisted Transesterification Technology 381

20.3.2.1 Principle 381

20.3.3 Ultrasonic-Assisted Transesterification Techniques 382

20.3.4 Production of Biodiesel Using Cosolvent Method 385

20.3.4.1 Principle 385

20.3.5 In Situ Biodiesel Production Technology 385

20.3.5.1 Principle 385

20.3.6 Production of Biodiesel Through Reactive Distillation Process 387

20.3.6.1 Principle 387

20.4 Conclusion 389

20.5 Future Perspectives 390

References 390

Index 397

Authors

Samuel Lalthazuala Rokhum National Institute of Technology Silchar, India. Gopinath Halder National Institute of Technology Durgapur, India. Suttichai Assabumrungrat Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. Kanokwan Ngaosuwan Rajamangala University of Technology Krungthep, Bangkok, Thailand.