In Sensory Profiling of Dairy Products, distinguished dairy technologist Dr John J. Tuohy delivers an expert discussion of advances in the sensory profiling of dairy products, including the physiology of sensory perception, sensory profiling methodology, statistical data analysis and consumer studies. The book covers the sensory profiling of dairy products like fluid milk, yoghurt, a wide range of internationally popular cheese varieties, ice cream, butter, and milkfat products.
Beginning with a historical review of the sensory evaluation of dairy products, the book covers recent advances in the practice. The editor has also included resources that profile the sensory attributes of the products most important to the dairy industry: fluid milks, cream and milkfat products, frozen dairy desserts, and a variety of cheeses.
Readers will also find: - A thorough introduction to sensory analysis and consumer mindsets and emotions regarding dairy products - Comprehensive explorations of the chemistry, biochemistry and physiology of sensory perception of the flavour and mouthfeel stimuli imparted by dairy products - Practical discussions of the sensory attributes of fat-rich dairy and ethnic Indian products - Fulsome treatments of the sensory profiles of natural and processed cheese varieties
Perfect for dairy professionals, regulators, and lawmakers, Sensory Profiling of Dairy Products will also earn a place in the libraries of food marketing professionals, retailers, and culinary practitioners, as well as professors and students with an interest in dairy products.
Table of Contents
List of Contributors xiii
Preface to the Technical Series xix
Preface xix
1 Sensory Analysis and Consumer Mind- Sets and Emotions for Dairy Products 1
Attila Gere, Barbara Biró, Dalma Radványi, Ryan Zemel, Petraq Papajorgji and Howard Moskowitz
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 History of the sensory analysis of dairy products 1
1.1.2 Changes in consumer habits 3
1.2 How MG approaches the problem of understanding new versus traditional in cheese 4
1.3 Looking at different groups of respondents 9
1.4 Linking emotions to messages 11
1.5 Finding mind- sets in the population for future communication, research and sales efforts 12
1.6 The multiple contributions of MG to scientific investigation 14
1.7 The role of emotions 15
Acknowledgement 15
References 15
2 Physiology of Sensory Perception of Flavour and Mouthfeel Stimuli Imparted by Dairy Products 18
Lisa Methven, Stella Lignou, Stephanie Bull, Maria Jose Oruna- Concha and Rosa Sullivan
2.1 Introduction 18
2.2 Aroma perception 18
2.2.1 Physiology of aroma perception 19
2.3 Taste perception 21
2.3.1 Physiology of taste perception 22
2.3.2 Oleogustus, a taste response to fatty acids 25
2.3.3 Taste perception of peptides and diketopiperazines and their relevance to cheese 26
2.3.4 The perception of kokumi and its relevance to cheese 27
2.4 Mouthfeel perception 30
2.4.1 Physiology of mouthfeel perception 30
2.4.2 The perception of key mouthfeel attributes relevant to dairy products 31
2.4.3 The influence of oral processing and saliva 32
2.4.4 The perception of mouth- drying in high- protein dairy products 32
2.5 Chemesthesis 33
2.6 The influence of individual differences in phenotype and genotype and their relevance to the perception of dairy products 33
References 35
3 Sensory Data Analysis and Future Developments 44
Matthew McSweeney
3.1 Introduction 44
3.2 Scoring methods 45
3.2.1 Affective testing 45
3.2.2 Cluster analysis 46
3.2.3 Just about right 47
3.2.4 Intensity scales 48
3.3 Descriptive analysis 49
3.4 Rapid sensory analysis 51
3.4.1 Check- all- that- apply (CATA) 51
3.4.2 Projective mapping 53
3.5 Conclusions 54
References 54
4 Application of Multivariate Statistical Analysis and Machine Learning to Sensory Data Analysis 57
Ana C.M. Pinheiro, Elenilson G. Alves Filho, Michele N. Ribeiro, Jéssica F. Rodrigues, Tatiana C. Pimentel, Lorena M.A. Silva, Sueli Rodrigues, Erick A. Esmerino and Adriano G. da Cruz
4.1 Introduction 57
4.2 Multivariate analysis applied to data from sensory assessment of dairy products 57
4.2.1 Principal component analysis 59
4.2.2 Correspondence analysis 60
4.2.3 Hierarchical cluster analysis 60
4.2.4 Generalised Procrustes analysis 60
4.2.5 Multiple- factor analysis 60
4.2.6 Distatis 61
4.3 Machine learning 62
4.4 Conclusions 65
References 65
5 Projective Sensory Evaluation Methods for Dairy Products 68
Adriana Gambaro, Marcelo Miraballes, Adriano G. da Cruz and Erick A. Esmerino
5.1 Introduction 68
5.2 Categories of projective methods 69
5.2.1 Word association 69
5.2.2 Construction task 72
5.2.3 Completion task 73
5.2.4 Choice ordering task 75
5.2.5 Expressive task 76
5.3 Comparison of projective techniques in dairy products case studies 76
5.4 Analysis of projective technique data 77
5.5 Online versus paper- based surveys 78
5.6 Conclusions 78
References 78
6 Sensory Attributes of Liquid Milk Products 81
Elson R. Filho, Amanda A. Prestes, Maria H. Canella, Elane S. Prudencio, Mônica Q. Freitas, Tatiana C. Pimentel, Erick A. Esmerino and Adriano G. da Cruz
6.1 Introduction 81
6.2 Sensory evaluation of heat- treated fluid milk 85
6.3 Influence of heat treatment on sensory characteristics of milk 91
6.3.1 Sensory profile of pasteurised milk 93
6.3.2 Sensory profile of ESL (extended- shelf- life) milk 94
6.3.3 Sensory profile of UHT (ultra- high- temperature) milk 95
6.3.4 Sensory profile of sterilised milk 96
6.4 Sensory profile of flavoured milks 97
References 99
7 Sensory Profile of Yoghurt and Related Products 103
Amanda A. Prestes, Elane S. Prudencio, Maria H. Canella, Mônica Q. Freitas, Elson R. Filho, Tatiana C. Pimentel, Erick A. Esmerino and Adriano G. da Cruz
7.1 Introduction 103
7.2 Yoghurt and related products 104
7.2.1 Natural yoghurt 104
7.2.2 Concentrated yoghurts 105
7.2.3 Sweetened and flavoured yoghurts 105
7.2.4 Drinking yoghurt 106
7.2.5 Frozen yoghurt 106
7.3 Sensory profile of yoghurt and related products 106
7.3.1 Sensory profile of natural yoghurt (set and stirred type) 107
7.3.2 Sensory profile of concentrated yoghurts 110
7.3.3 Sensory profile of sweetened and flavoured yoghurt products 111
7.3.4 Drinking yoghurt 114
7.3.5 Sensory profile of frozen yoghurt 116
References 116
8 Sensory Profiles of Middle Eastern and Related Cheeses 120
Barbaros Özer, Şebnem Ö. Budak and Hamid Ghoddusi
8.1 Introduction 120
8.2 Sensory evaluation of Middle Eastern and related cheeses 120
8.3 Cheeses ripened in brine 123
8.3.1 Ezine 126
8.3.2 Edirne Beyaz 127
8.3.3 Feta 127
8.3.4 Lighvan and Iranian White cheeses 129
8.3.5 Akkawi 130
8.3.6 Domiati 130
8.3.7 Mish 132
8.3.8 Nabulshi 132
8.3.9 Erzurum Civil 132
8.3.10 Izmir Tulum 132
8.3.11 Van Otlu 133
8.3.12 Urfa 133
8.4 Scalded and pasta- filata- type cheeses 133
8.4.1 Kashkaval 134
8.4.2 Halloumi 134
8.4.3 Graviera 137
8.4.4 Diyarbakır Orgu 137
8.5 Cheeses ripened in animal skins or pots 138
8.5.1 Divle Tulum 138
8.5.2 Savak Tulum 138
8.5.3 Yozgat Canak 139
8.6 Kopanisti cheese 139
References 139
9 Sensory Profiles of Pan- American Fresh, Soft and Other Cheese Varieties 145
Callebe Camelo- Silva, Monique Juna Lopes Leite, Giordana Demaman Arend, Tatiana C. Pimentel, Marco Di Luccio, Silvani Verruck, Erick A. Esmerino and Adriano G. da Cruz
9.1 Introduction 145
9.2 Oaxaca cheese 146
9.3 Queso Chihuahua 148
9.4 Mozzarella- type pizza topping cheese 150
9.5 Quark 153
9.6 Cottage cheese 156
9.7 Queso Fresco 158
9.8 Queso Blanco 160
9.9 Cotija cheese 161
9.10 Mexican Manchego 162
9.11 Minas Frescal 163
9.12 Coalho cheese 166
9.13 Conclusions 168
References 170
10 Sensory Characteristics of Cheddar and Related Cheeses Varieties 179
Maurice G. O’Sullivan
10.1 Introduction 179
10.2 Cheddar and related varieties 180
10.2.1 Cheddar 180
10.2.2 Washed- curd cheeses 181
10.2.3 Monterey Jack 181
10.3 Cheddar cheese grading methods 182
10.4 Sensory profiling methods for Cheddar cheese 182
10.5 Origin of Cheddar flavour and texture development 186
10.6 Reduced- salt Cheddar 188
10.7 Reduced- fat Cheddar 189
References 190
11 Sensory Characteristics of Swiss- type Cheese Varieties 195
Barbara Guggenbühl Gasser, Pascal Fuchsmann and Marie- Therese Fröhlich- Wyder
11.1 Introduction 195
11.2 Sensory evaluation methods 196
11.2.1 Grading and quality scoring by cheese experts 196
11.2.2 Descriptive profiling methods (quantitative descriptive tests) 196
11.2.3 Consumer testing 198
11.3 Sensory characteristics of Swiss- type cheese varieties 198
11.3.1 Role of propionic acid fermentation 198
11.3.2 Appearance 199
11.3.3 Texture 200
11.3.4 Flavour 201
11.4 Relationship between sensory data and analytical measurements 211
11.4.1 Relationship between microflora and perceived flavour 212
11.4.2 Relationship between volatile and non- volatile compounds and perceived flavour 213
11.5 Relationship between consumer data and descriptive panel data 218
11.6 Perception of defects of Swiss- type cheese varieties 219
11.7 Conclusions 219
References 220
12 Sensory Profiles of Very Hard Italian Cheeses and Related Varieties 225
Antonella Santillo and Marzia Albenzio
12.1 Introduction 225
12.2 Grana- type cheeses 225
12.2.1 Grana Padano 229
12.2.2 Trentingrana 231
12.2.3 Parmigiano Reggiano 232
12.2.4 Reggianito 233
12.3 Pecorino- type cheeses 233
12.3.1 Canestrato Pugliese 236
12.3.2 Fiore Sardo and Pecorino Romana 237
12.3.3 Canestrato di Moliterno 238
12.3.4 Idiazábal, Manchego, Roncal and Castellano 238
12.4 Asiago and Montasio cheeses 239
12.4.1 Asiago 240
12.4.2 Montasio 241
12.5 Conclusions 242
References 243
13 Sensory Profiles of Iberian and Related Cheese Varieties 246
Elena Molina, Lourdes Amigo and Daniel Lozano- Ojalvo
13.1 Introduction 246
13.2 Fresh Iberian cheese varieties 250
13.2.1 Afuega’l Pitu 250
13.2.2 Camerano 250
13.2.3 Cebreiro 260
13.2.4 De Murcia 260
13.3 Soft and semi- soft Iberian cheese 261
13.3.1 Arzúa- Ulloa 261
13.3.2 Azeitão 262
13.3.3 Cabrales 262
13.3.4 De Flor de Guía, De Guía and De Media Flor de Guía 263
13.3.5 De La Serena 263
13.3.6 De Valdeón 264
13.3.7 L’Alt Urgell y la Cerdanya 264
13.3.8 Los Beyos 264
13.3.9 Mahón- Menorca 265
13.3.10 Majorero 266
13.3.11 Mestiço Tolosa 267
13.3.12 Nata de Cantabria 267
13.3.13 Palmero 267
13.3.14 Pico 268
13.3.15 Quesucos de Liébana 268
13.3.16 Torta del Casar 269
13.4 Semi- hard Iberian cheeses varieties 269
13.4.1 Amarelo da Beira Baixa 270
13.4.2 Castelo Branco 270
13.4.3 De Murcia al Vino 270
13.4.4 Gamonedo 271
13.4.5 Ibores 271
13.4.6 Picón Bejes- Tresviso 272
13.4.7 San Simón da Costa 272
13.4.8 Serpa 273
13.4.9 Serra da Estrela 273
13.4.10 Terrincho 273
13.4.11 Tetilla 274
13.5 Semi- hard or hard Iberian cheese varieties 274
13.5.1 Casín 275
13.5.2 Évora 275
13.5.3 Idiazábal 275
13.5.4 Manchego 276
13.5.5 Nisa 276
13.5.6 Picante de Beira Baixa 277
13.5.7 Rabaçal 277
13.5.8 Roncal 277
13.5.9 São Jorge 278
13.5.10 Zamorano 278
13.6 Hard or extra- hard Iberian cheese varieties 278
13.6.1 Cabra Transmontano 279
References 279
14 Sensory Evaluation in Processed Cheese Innovation 286
Silvani Verruck, Saionara Sartor, Mônica Q. Freitas, Tatiana C. Pimentel, Erick A. Esmerino, Adriano G. da Cruz and Marice N. Oliveira
14.1 Introduction 286
14.2 Processed cheese products 288
14.3 Sensory characteristics of processed cheese 290
14.3.1 Sensory impact of sodium replacement 291
14.3.2 Sensory impact of fat replacement 298
14.3.3 Sensory impact of processed cheese fortification 306
14.4 Conclusions 313
References 313
15 Sensory Attributes of Fat- Rich Dairy and Ethnic Indian Products 318
Bhavbhuti M. Mehta and Suneeta Pinto
15.1 Introduction 318
15.2 Cream and cream products 319
15.2.1 Sensory attributes of creams 323
15.2.2 Sensory evaluation of creams 324
15.2.3 Flavour defects in cream 326
15.2.4 Common body and texture defects in cream 328
15.3 Butter 329
15.3.1 Sensory attributes of butter 329
15.3.2 Sensory evaluation of butter 331
15.3.3 Colour defects in butter 333
15.3.4 Flavour defects in butter 334
15.3.5 Body and texture defects in butter 336
15.4 Dairy spreads 339
15.4.1 Sensory defects in dairy spreads 339
15.5 Ghee/Anhydrous milk fat/butter oil 341
15.5.1 Sensory quality of ghee and butter oil 342
15.5.2 Sensory evaluation of ghee 344
15.6 Conclusions 346
References 346
16 Sensory Applications in Ice Cream and Frozen Desserts 350
R. Andrew Wilbey
16.1 Introduction 350
16.1.1 Formulation 351
16.1.2 Ingredients 352
16.1.3 Processing 353
16.2 Sampling and presentation 356
16.3 Choice of approach to sensory testing 358
16.3.1 Quality assurance 358
16.3.2 Competitions 358
16.3.3 Research and product development 360
16.4 Characterising the sensory properties of ice cream and frozen deserts 362
16.5 Impact of formulation changes on the sensory profile of ice cream 364
16.5.1 Fat reduction 364
16.5.2 Sucrose reduction 365
16.6 Consumer preference and acceptance testing 367
References 368
Index 371
