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Nanosatellites. Space and Ground Technologies, Operations and Economics. Edition No. 1

  • Book

  • 712 Pages
  • April 2020
  • John Wiley and Sons Ltd
  • ID: 5841718

Nanosatellites: Space and Ground Technologies, Operations and Economics

Rogerio Atem de Carvalho, Instituto Federal Fluminense, Brazil

Jaime Estela, Spectrum Aerospace Group, Germany and Peru

Martin Langer, Technical University of Munich, Germany

Covering the latest research on nanosatellites

Nanosatellites: Space and Ground Technologies, Operations and Economics comprehensively presents the latest research on the fast-developing area of nanosatellites. Divided into three distinct sections, the book begins with a brief history of nanosatellites and introduces nanosatellites technologies and payloads, also explaining how these are deployed into space. The second section provides an overview of the ground segment and operations, and the third section focuses on the regulations, policies, economics, and future trends.

Key features:

  • Payloads for nanosatellites
  • Nanosatellites components design
  • Examines the cost of development of nanosatellites.
  • Covers the latest policies and regulations.
  • Considers future trends for nanosatellites.

Nanosatellites: Space and Ground Technologies, Operations and Economics is a comprehensive reference for researchers and practitioners working with nanosatellites in the aerospace industry.

Table of Contents

List of Contributors xxiii

Foreword: Nanosatellite Space Experiment xxix

Introduction by the Editors xxxv

1 I-1 A Brief History of Nanosatellites 1
Siegfried W. Janson

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Historical Nanosatellite Launch Rates 1

1.3 The First Nanosatellites 3

1.4 The Large Space Era 8

1.5 The New Space Era 12

1.6 Summary 23

References 24

2 I-2a On-board Computer and Data Handling 31
Jaime Estela and Sergio Montenegro

2.1 Introduction 31

2.2 History 31

2.3 Special Requirements for Space Applications 34

2.4 Hardware 35

2.5 Design 41

References 49

3 I-2b Operational Systems 51
Lucas Ramos Hissa and Rogerio Atem de Carvalho

3.1 Introduction 51

3.2 RTOS Overview 51

3.3 RTOS on On-board Computers (OBCs): Requirements for a Small Satellite 52

3.4 Example Projects 55

3.5 Conclusions 56

References 59

4 I-2c Attitude Control and Determination 61
Willem H. Steyn and Vaios J. Lappas

4.1 Introduction 61

4.2 ADCS Fundamentals 61

4.3 ADCS Requirements and Stabilization Methods 62

4.4 ADCS Background Theory 65

4.5 Attitude and Angular Rate Determination 66

4.6 Attitude and Angular Rate Controllers 72

4.7 ADCS Sensor and Actuator Hardware 75

References 83

5 I-2d Propulsion Systems 85
Flavia Tata Nardini, Michele Coletti, Alexander Reissner, and David Krejci

5.1 Introduction 85

5.2 Propulsion Elements 86

5.3 Key Elements in the Development of Micropropulsion Systems 87

5.4 Propulsion System Technologies 90

5.5 Mission Elements 98

5.6 Survey of All Existing Systems 101

5.7 Future Prospect 113

References 113

6 I-2e Communications 115
Nicolas Appel, Sebastian Rückerl, Martin Langer, and Rolf-Dieter Klein

6.1 Introduction 115

6.2 Regulatory Considerations 116

6.3 Satellite Link Characteristics 117

6.4 Channel Coding 123

6.5 Data Link Layer 126

6.6 Hardware 128

6.7 Testing 138

References 140

7 I-2f Structural Subsystem 143
Kenan Y. Sanl𝚤türk, Murat Süer, and A. Rüstem Aslan

7.1 Definition and Tasks 143

7.2 Existing State-of-the-Art Structures for CubeSats 145

7.3 Materials and Thermal Considerations for Structural Design 150

7.4 Design Parameters and Tools 152

7.5 Design Challenges 162

7.6 Future Prospects 163

References 164

8 I-2g Power Systems 167
Marcos Compadre, Ausias Garrigós, and Andrew Strain

8.1 Introduction 167

8.2 Power Source: Photovoltaic Solar Cells and Solar Array 170

8.3 Energy Storage: Lithium-ion Batteries 172

8.4 SA-battery Power Conditioning: DET and MPPT 175

8.5 Battery Charging Control Loops 178

8.6 Bus Power Conditioning and Distribution: Load Converters and Distribution Switches 179

8.7 Flight Switch Subsystem 183

8.8 DC/DC Converters 183

8.9 Power System Sizing: Power Budget, Solar Array, and Battery Selection 187

8.10 Conclusions 191

References 191

9 I-2h Thermal Design, Analysis, and Test 193
Philipp Reiss, Matthias Killian, and Philipp Hager

9.1 Introduction 193

9.2 Typical Thermal Loads 194

9.3 Active and Passive Designs 200

9.4 Design Approach and Tools 204

9.5 Thermal Tests 208

References 212

10 I-2i Systems Engineering and Quality Assessment 215
Lucas Lopes Costa, Geilson Loureiro, Eduardo Escobar Bürger, and Franciele Carlesso

10.1 Introduction 215

10.2 Systems Engineering Definition and Process 216

10.3 Space Project Management: Role of Systems Engineers 222

10.4 ECSS and Other Standards 225

10.5 Document, Risk Control, and Resources 228

10.6 Changing Trends in SE and Quality Assessment for Nanosatellites 233

References 233

11 I-2j Integration and Testing 235
Eduardo Escobar Bürger, Geilson Loureiro, and Lucas Lopes Costa

11.1 Introduction 235

11.2 Overall Tasks 236

11.3 Typical Flow 241

11.4 Test Philosophies 242

11.5 Typical System Integration Process 244

11.6 Typical Test Parameters and Facilities 244

11.7 Burden of Integration and Testing 245

11.8 Changing Trends in Nanosatellite Testing 249

References 250

12 I-3a Scientific Payloads 251
Anna Gregorio

12.1 Introduction 251

12.2 Categorization 252

12.3 Imagers 254

12.4 X-ray Detectors 256

12.5 Spectrometers 259

12.6 Photometers 262

12.7 GNSS Receivers 265

12.8 Microbolometers 267

12.9 Radiometers 269

12.10 Radar Systems 270

12.11 Particle Detectors 274

12.12 PlasmaWave Analyzers 277

12.13 Biological Detectors 280

12.14 Solar Sails 283

12.15 Conclusions 283

References 283

13 I-3b In-orbit Technology Demonstration 291
Jaime Estela

13.1 Introduction 291

13.2 Activities of Space Agencies 292

13.3 Nanosatellites 295

13.4 Microsatellites 298

13.5 ISS 301

References 306

14 I-3c Nanosatellites as Educational Projects 309
Merlin F. Barschke

14.1 Introduction 309

14.2 Satellites and Project-based Learning 309

14.3 University Satellite Programs 312

14.4 Outcome and Success Criteria 316

14.5 Teams and Organizational Structure 318

14.6 Challenges and Practical Experiences 318

14.7 From Pure Education to Powerful Research Tools 321

References 321

15 I-3d Formations of Small Satellites 327
Klaus Schilling

15.1 Introduction 327

15.2 Constellations and Formations 327

15.3 Orbit Dynamics 328

15.4 Satellite Configurations 331

15.5 Relevant Specific Small Satellite Technologies to Enable Formations 332

15.6 Application Examples 334

15.7 Test Environment for Multisatellite Systems 336

15.8 Conclusions for Distributed Nanosatellite Systems 337

Acknowledgments 338

References 338

16 I-3e Precise, Autonomous Formation Flight at Low Cost 341
Niels Roth, Ben Risi, Robert E. Zee, Grant Bonin, Scott Armitage, and Josh Newman

16.1 Introduction 341

16.2 Mission Overview 342

16.3 System Overview 343

16.4 Launch and Early Operations 350

16.5 Formation Control Results 353

16.6 Conclusion 360

Acknowledgments 360

References 360

17 I-4a Launch Vehicles - Challenges and Solutions 363
Kaitlyn Kelley

17.1 Introduction 363

17.2 Past Nanosatellite Launches 365

17.3 Launch Vehicles Commonly Used by Nanosatellites 367

17.4 Overview of a Typical Launch Campaign 368

17.5 Launch Demand 371

17.6 Future Launch Concepts 372

References 374

18 I-4b Deployment Systems 375
A. Rüstem Aslan, Cesar Bernal, and Jordi Puig-Suari

18.1 Introduction 375

18.2 Definition and Tasks 375

18.3 Basics of Deployment Systems 376

18.4 State of the Art 377

18.5 Future Prospects 395

Acknowledgments 396

References 396

19 I-4c Mission Operations 399
Chantal Cappelletti

19.1 Introduction 399

19.2 Organization of Mission Operations 400

19.3 Goals and Functions of Mission Operations 401

19.4 Input and Output of Mission Operations 404

19.5 MOP 406

19.6 Costs and Operations 409

References 414

Further Reading 415

20 I-5 Mission Examples 417
Kelly Antonini, Nicolò Carletti, Kevin Cuevas, Matteo Emanuelli, Per Koch, Laura León Pérez, and Daniel Smith

20.1 Introduction 417

20.2 Mission Types 418

20.3 Mission Examples 420

20.4 Constellations 433

20.5 Perspective 437

References 438

21 II-1 Ground Segment 441
Fernando Aguado Agelet and Alberto González Muíño

21.1 Introduction 441

21.2 Ground Segment Functionalities 441

21.3 Ground Segment Architecture 442

21.4 Ground Station Elements 444

21.5 Ground Segment Software 449

21.6 Ground Segment Operation 451

21.7 Future Prospects 452

References 455

22 II-2 Ground Station Networks 457
Lucas Rodrigues Amaduro and Rogerio Atem de Carvalho

22.1 Introduction 457

22.2 Technological Challenges 457

22.3 Visibility Clash Problems of Stations and Satellites 458

22.4 The Distributed Ground Station Network 459

22.5 Infrastructure 459

22.6 Planning and Scheduling 460

22.7 Generic Software Architecture 460

22.8 Example Networks 462

22.9 Traditional Ground Station Approach 462

22.10 Heterogeneous Ground Station Approach 464

22.11 Homogeneous Ground Station Approach 466

22.12 Conclusions 469

References 469

23 II-3 Ground-based Satellite Tracking 471
Enrico Stoll, Jürgen Letschnik, and Christopher Kebschull

23.1 Introduction 471

23.2 Orbital Element Sets 472

23.3 Tracklet Generation from Ground Measurements 475

23.4 Tracking CubeSats with Ground Stations 481

23.5 Orbit Propagation 485

23.6 Principle of Operations of Ground Stations 487

23.7 Summary 492

References 493

24 II-4a AMSAT 495
Andrew Barron (ZL3DW)

24.1 Introduction 495

24.2 Project OSCAR 496

24.3 AMSAT Satellite Designations 499

24.4 Other Notable AMSAT and OSCAR Satellites 500

24.5 The Development of CubeSats 503

24.6 FUNcube Satellites 504

24.7 Fox Satellites 505

24.8 GOLF Satellites 505

24.9 The IARU and ITU Resolution 659 506

References 507

24 II-4b New Radio Technologies 508
Andrew Barron (ZL3DW)

24.10 Introduction 508

24.11 SDR Space Segment 509

24.12 SDR Ground Segment 510

24.13 Modern Transmitter Design 511

Reference 513

25 III-1a Cost Breakdown for the Development of Nanosatellites 515
Katharine Brumbaugh Gamble

25.1 Introduction 515

25.2 Recurring Costs 517

25.3 Nonrecurring Costs 521

25.4 Satellite Cost-estimating Models 523

25.5 Risk Estimation and Reduction 528

25.6 Conclusions 530

References 530

26 III-1b Launch Costs 533
Merlin F. Barschke

26.1 Introduction 533

26.2 Launching Nanosatellites 533

26.3 Launch Sites 539

26.4 Launch Milestones 539

26.5 Launch Cost 540

References 541

27 III-2a Policies and Regulations in Europe 545
Neta Palkovitz

27.1 Introduction 545

27.2 International Space Law 545

27.3 National Laws and Practices in EU Member States 550

27.4 Future Regulation and Prospects 554

References 555

28 III-2b Policies and Regulations in North America 557
Mike Miller and Kirk Woellert

28.1 Introduction 557

28.2 Governing Treaties and Laws 558

28.3 Orbital Debris Mitigation 561

28.4 Space Traffic Management 563

28.5 Licensing of Radio Transmission from Space 566

28.6 Licensing for Remote Sensing Activities from Space 570

28.7 Export Control Laws 571

28.8 Conclusion 575

References 577

29 III-2c International Organizations and International Cooperation 583
Jean-Francois Mayence

29.1 Introduction 583

29.2 The United Nations and Affiliated Organizations 584

29.3 International Telecommunications Union 589

29.4 Other United Nations Agencies and Bodies 590

29.5 Non-UN Organizations 593

29.6 Main Non-European Spacefaring Nations 597

29.7 Conclusions 600

References 601

30 III-3a Economy of Small Satellites 603
Richard Joye

30.1 Introduction 603

30.2 Rethinking the Value Chain 603

30.3 A Hybrid Small Satellite Value Chain 604

30.4 Evolution, Not Revolution? 611

30.5 The Economics at Play 612

30.6 Satellite Manufacturers 612

30.7 Launch Service Providers 614

30.8 Satellite Operators 615

30.9 Satellite Servicing Providers 616

30.10 Data and Solution Providers 616

30.11 A Shift Toward New Models 617

References 618

Further Reading 618

31 III-3b Economics and the Future 621
Richard Joye

31.1 Introduction 621

31.2 Themes Shaping the Space Industry 622

31.3 Megatrends 624

31.4 Conclusion: The Space Industry is in Mutation 632

Further Reading 632

32 III-3c Networks of Nanosatellites 635
Richard Joye

32.1 Introduction 635

32.2 Why Networks? 635

32.3 Opportunities for Networks of Nanosatellites 641

32.4 Challenges and Issues 646

Reference 648

Further Reading 648

List of Existing and Upcoming Networks of Satellites - January 2018, Updated March 2019 649

Index 663

Authors

Rogerio Atem de Carvalho Jaime Estela Martin Langer