75th anniversary commemorative volume reflecting the transistor's development since inception to current state of the art
75th Anniversary of the Transistor is a commemorative anniversary volume to celebrate the invention of the transistor. The anniversary volume was conceived by the IEEE Electron Devices Society (EDS) to provide comprehensive yet compact coverage of the historical perspectives underlying the invention of the transistor and its subsequent evolution into a multitude of integration and manufacturing technologies and applications.
The book reflects the transistor's development since inception to the current state of the art that continues to enable scaling to very large-scale integrated circuits of higher functionality and speed. The stages in this evolution covered are in chronological order to reflect historical developments.
Narratives and experiences are provided by a select number of venerated industry and academic leaders, and retired veterans, of the semiconductor industry. 75th Anniversary of the Transistor highlights:
- Historical perspectives of the state-of-the-art pre-solid-state-transistor world (pre-1947) leading to the invention of the transistor
- Invention of the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and analytical formulations by Shockley (1948) and their impact on the semiconductor industry
- Large scale integration, Moore's Law (1965) and transistor scaling (1974), and MOS/LSI, including flash memories - SRAMs, DRAMs (1963), and the Toshiba NAND flash memory (1989)
- Image sensors (1986), including charge-coupled devices, and related microsensor applications
With comprehensive yet succinct and accessible coverage of one of the cornerstones of modern technology, 75th Anniversary of the Transistor is an essential reference for engineers, researchers, and undergraduate students looking for historical perspective from leaders in the field.
Table of Contents
Editor Biography xiii
Preface xv
1 The First Quantum Electron Device 1
Leo Esaki
2 IEEE Electron Devices Society: A Brief History 3
Samar K. Saha
2.1 Introduction 3
2.2 Origins of EDS 4
2.3 Growth of EDS 6
2.4 Publications 10
2.5 Conferences 12
2.6 Awards and Recognition 14
2.7 Conclusion 14
3 Did Sir J.C. Bose Anticipate the Existence of p- and n-Type Semiconductors in His Coherer/Detector Experiments? 17
Prasanta Kumar Basu
3.1 Introduction 17
3.2 J.C. Bose: A Brief Biography 18
3.3 Bose's Work on Detectors 19
3.4 Mott's Remark 21
3.5 Understanding Semiconductors and Doping 21
3.6 Interpretation of Mott's Remark 23
3.7 Conclusion 25
4 The Point-Contact Transistor: A Revolution Begins 29
John M. Dallesasse and Robert B. Kaufman
4.1 Introduction 29
4.2 Background and Motivation 30
4.3 Inventors' Understanding How a Point-Contact Transistor Operates 31
4.4 Recreating the Point-Contact Transistor 33
4.5 Concluding Remarks 40
5 On the Shockley Diode Equation and Analytic Models for Modern Bipolar Transistors 43
T. H. Ning
5.1 Introduction 43
5.2 Adaptation of Shockley Diode Equation to Modern Bipolar Transistors 45
5.3 Modern Bipolar Transistors Structures 46
5.4 Analytic Models for Modern Bipolar Transistors 48
5.5 Discussion 49
6 Junction-Less Field Effect Transistors: The First Transistor to be Conceptualized 51
Mamidala Jagadesh Kumar and Shubham Sahay
6.1 Introduction 51
6.2 Structure and Operation 52
6.3 Salient Features of JLFETs 55
6.4 Challenges for JLFETs 58
6.5 Unconventional Applications of JL Architecture 59
6.6 Conclusions 61
7 The First MOSFET Design by J. Lilienfeld and a Long Journey to Its Implementation 65
Hiroshi Iwai
7.1 Introduction 65
7.2 Demand for the Development of the Solid-State Amplifier and Its Difficulty 66
7.3 Grid-Inserted MESFETs 68
7.4 Lilienfeld Patents for the MESFET and MOSFET 69
7.5 Necessary Conditions for Successful MOSFET Operation, and MOSFET Development Chronology 72
7.6 Status of the Semiconductor Physics at the Lilienfeld Period (in the 1920s) and Thereafter 73
7.7 Improvement of Si and Ge Material Quality and Discovery of the pn Junction in the 1940s 74
7.8 H. Welker's MISFET with Inversion Channel in 1945 75
7.9 Shockley's Group Study for MOSFET from 1945 to 1947 76
7.10 Technology Development in the 1950s Until the Successful MOSFET Operation in 1960 79
7.11 Success of MOSFET Operation by D. Kahng and M. Attala in 1960 81
7.12 After the First Successful Operation of the MOSFET 82
7.13 Summary and Conclusions 82
8 The Invention of the Self-Aligned Silicon Gate Process 89
Robert E. Kerwin
9 The Application of Ion Implantation to Device Fabrication: The Early Days 95
Alfred U. MacRae
9.1 Introduction 95
9.2 Device Fabrication 96
9.3 Summary 99
10 Evolution of the MOSFET: From Microns to Nanometers 101
Yuan Taur
10.1 Introduction 101
10.2 The Early Days: Before 1980 102
10.3 From 1980 to 2000 103
10.4 The Latest: After 2000 109
10.5 Conclusion 113
11 The SOI Transistor 115
Sorin Cristoloveanu
11.1 The Beginnings 115
11.2 The Renaissance 116
11.3 The Smart-Cut Dynasty 119
11.4 Special Mechanisms in FD-SOI MOSFET 122
11.5 A Selection of Innovating Devices 126
11.6 The Future 130
12 FinFET: The 3D Thin-Body Transistor 135
Chenming Hu
12.1 The Show Stopper 135
12.2 The Cause of the Power Crises 135
12.3 The Real Cause of the Power Crises 137
12.4 A DARPA Request for Proposal 138
12.5 The Challenges and Team Work 139
12.6 Further Advancements by Industry 141
12.7 Conclusion 144
13 Historical Perspective of the Development of the FinFET and Process Architecture 145
Digh Hisamoto
13.1 Introduction 145
13.2 Requirements for the End of CMOS Scaling 146
13.3 Restrictions of Planar Process Technology 148
13.4 Prompted Device/Process Technology Evolution by FinFET 151
13.5 Conclusion 152
14 The Origin of the Tunnel FET 155
Gehan A. J. Amaratunga
14.1 Background 155
14.2 Conception 156
14.3 Realization 157
14.4 Relevance 159
14.5 Prospects 159
15 Floating-Gate Memory: A Prime Technology Driver of the Digital Age 163
S. M. Sze
15.1 Introduction 163
15.2 The Charge-Storage Concept 164
15.3 Early Device Structures 167
15.4 Multi-Level Cells and 3D Structures 169
15.5 Applications 171
15.6 Scaling Challenges 173
15.7 Alternative Structures 174
15.8 Conclusion 175
16 Development of ETOX NOR Flash Memory 179
Stefan K. Lai
16.1 Introduction 179
16.2 Background 179
16.3 Not the Perfect Solution 181
16.4 ETOX Development Challenges 182
16.5 Building a Business 183
16.6 Closing Words 184
17 History of MOS Memory Evolution on DRAM and SRAM 187
Mitsumasa Koyanagi
17.1 Introduction 187
17.2 Revolutionary Technologies in DRAM History 187
17.3 Revolutionary Technologies in SRAM History 202
17.4 Summary 210
18 Silicon-Germanium Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors: A Retrospective 215
Subramanian S. Iyer and John D. Cressler
18.1 Introduction (JDC) 215
18.2 Some History from Early Days at IBM Research (SSI) 218
18.3 SiGe Epitaxy and Making the First SiGe Transistor (SSI) 221
18.4 MBE vs. UHV/CVD vs. APCVD for SiGe epi (SSI) 224
18.5 Putting Physics to Work - The Properties of SiGe HBTs (JDC) 225
18.6 SiGe BiCMOS: Devices to Circuits to Systems (JDC and SSI) 228
18.7 Using SiGe in Extreme Environments (JDC) 231
18.8 New Directions (JDC and SSI) 234
18.9 Some Parting Words (SSI) 235
19 The 25-Year Disruptive Path of InP/GaAsSb Double Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors 239
Colombo R. Bolognesi
19.1 Introduction 239
19.2 Phase I: Simon Fraser Years (1995-2006) 242
19.3 Phase II: ETH Years (2006-2022) 246
19.4 Response to Innovation 248
19.5 Final Words 249
20 The High Electron Mobility Transistor: 40 Years of Excitement and Surprises 253
Jesús A. del Alamo
20.1 Introduction 253
20.2 HEMT Electronics 254
20.3 Modulation-Doped Structures in Physics 257
20.4 Exciting Prospects 258
20.5 Conclusions 259
21 The Thin Film Transistor and Emergence of Large Area, Flexible Electronics and Beyond 263
Yue Kuo, Jin Jang, and Arokia Nathan
21.1 Birth of Large Area Electronics 263
21.2 Polycrystalline Silicon and Oxide Thin Film Transistor 265
21.3 Trends in TFT Development 266
22 Imaging Inventions: Charge-Coupled Devices 273
Michael F. Tompsett
22.1 Setting the Stage for the Invention of the Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) 273
22.2 The Invention of the CCD 274
22.3 Verifying the CCD Concept 275
22.4 The Invention of CCD Imagers 276
22.5 The First Solid-State Color TV Camera 276
22.6 Mixed Analog Design Modem Chip 278
23 The Invention and Development of CMOS Image Sensors: A Camera in Every Pocket 281
Eric R. Fossum
23.1 Introduction 281
23.2 Underlying Technology 282
23.3 Early Solid-State Image Sensors 283
23.4 Invention of CMOS Image Sensors 285
23.5 Photon-Counting CMOS Image Sensors 288
23.6 Conclusion 290
24 From Transistors to Microsensors: A Memoir 293
Henry Baltes
24.1 Early Encounters 293
24.2 Integration 293
24.3 Silicon Sensors 294
24.4 Transistor Sensors 294
24.5 CMOS End Fabrication 296
24.6 Outlook 297
25 Creation of the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor 299
B. Jayant Baliga
25.1 Introduction 299
25.2 Historical Context 300
25.3 The Brock Effect 301
25.4 My IGBT Proposal 301
25.5 The Welch Edict 301
25.6 Manufacturing the First IGBT Product 302
25.7 First IGBT Product Release 303
25.8 IGBT Technology Enhancement 304
25.9 IGBT Evolution 305
25.10 IGBT Applications 306
25.11 IGBT Social Impact 306
25.12 My Sentiments 307
26 The History of Noise in Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors 309
Renuka P. Jindal
26.1 Introduction 309
26.2 MOSFET Noise Time Line 310
26.3 Channel Thermal Noise 311
26.4 Induced Gate and Substrate Current Noise 311
26.5 Gate-Drain Current Noise Cross Correlation 312
26.6 Equilibrium Noise 312
26.7 Bulk Charge Effects 312
26.8 Gate Resistance Noise 313
26.9 Substrate Resistance Noise 313
26.10 Substrate and Gate Current Noise 313
26.11 Short-Channel Effects 314
26.12 Effect on Channel Thermal Noise 315
26.13 1/f Noise 316
26.14 Conclusions 316
27 A Miraculously Reliable Transistor: A Short History 323
Muhammad Ashraful Alam and Ahmed Ehteshamul Islam
27.1 Introduction: A Transistor is Born 323
27.2 Transistor Reliability in the Proto-Scaling Era 325
27.3 Reliability of Geometric-and Equivalent-Scaling Eras 325
27.4 Conclusions: Reliability Challenges for the Hyper-Scaling and Functional-Scaling Eras 330
28 Technology Computer-Aided Design: A Key Component of Microelectronics' Development 337
Siegfried Selberherr and Viktor Sverdlov
28.1 Introduction 337
28.2 Short History 338
28.3 Scaling and Model Complexity 339
28.4 MINIMOS Commercialization and Beyond 342
28.5 Design Technology Co-Optimization at Advanced Nodes 343
28.6 Electron Spin for Microelectronics 343
28.7 Summary and Outlook 344
29 Early Integrated Circuits 349
Willy Sansen
30 A Path to the One-Chip Mixed-Signal SoC for Digital Video Systems 355
Akira Matsuzawa
30.1 Introduction 355
30.2 Bipolar ADCs at Early Development Stage of Digital TVs 356
30.3 A CMOS ADC for Digital Handy Camcorder 360
30.4 One-Chip Mixed-Signal SoC for DVD 363
31 Historical Perspective of the Nonvolatile Memory and Emerging Computing Paradigms 369
Ming Liu
31.1 Introduction 369
31.2 Rise of Solid-State Nonvolatile Memory 370
31.3 NVM in Classical Computer Architectures 373
31.4 NVM-Driven New Computing Paradigm 375
31.5 Conclusion 376
32 CMOS Enabling Quantum Computing 379
Edoardo Charbon
32.1 Why Cryogenic Electronics? 379
32.2 The Quantum Stack 380
32.3 Modeling Cryo-CMOS Devices 380
32.4 Specific Effects in Cryo-CMOS Transistors 383
32.5 Perspectives and Trends 383
33 Materials and Interfaces: How They Contributed to Transistor Development 387
Bruce Gnade
33.1 Introduction 387
33.2 Back-End-of-Line 388
33.3 Channel Materials 389
33.4 Gate Stack 390
33.5 Contacts 391
33.6 Summary 391
34 The Magic of MOSFET Manufacturing 393
Kelin J. Kuhn
34.1 Introduction 393
34.2 The Magic of MOS 394
34.3 The Magic of Self-alignment 397
34.4 The Magic of Semiconductor Manufacturing 398
34.5 Transistor Magic for the NEXT 75 Years? 400
35 Materials Innovation: Key to Past and Future Transistor Scaling 403
Tsu-Jae King Liu and Lars P. Tatum
35.1 Introduction 403
35.2 MOSFET Basics 404
35.3 Complementary MOS (CMOS) Technology 407
35.4 MOSFET Scaling Challenges 408
35.5 MOSFET Materials Innovations 410
35.6 Outlook for Continued Transistor Scaling 411
36 Germanium: Back to the Future 415
Krishna C. Saraswat
36.1 Introduction 415
36.2 Need for High Mobility Material for MOS Channel 417
36.3 Surface Passivation of Ge-Based MOSFETs 418
36.4 Low Resistance Contacts to Ge 420
36.5 Heteroepitaxial Growth of Ge on Si 422
36.6 Strained Ge and Heterostructure FETs 423
36.7 Nanoscale Ge FETs 425
36.8 Ge NMOSFETs 425
36.9 Ge-Based Novel Devices for Optical Interconnects 426
36.10 Summary 427
Acknowledgment 427
References 428
Index 431
