Unleash the natural power and adaptability of forests with this cutting-edge guide
For generations, silvicultural systems have focused largely on models whose primary objective is the production of timber, leading to drastically simplified forests with reduced ecological richness, diversity, and complexity. Ecological silviculture, by contrast, focuses on producing and maintaining forests with “all their parts” -, that is, with the diversity and flexibility to respond and adapt to global changes. Ecological silviculture seeks to emulate natural development models and sustain healthy forests serving multiple values and goals.
Ecological Silvicultural Systems provides a comprehensive introduction to these approaches and their benefits tailored to diverse types of forests, designed for forest management professionals. It provides a series of exemplary models for ecological silviculture and surveys the resulting forest ecosystems. The result is a text that meets the needs of professionals in forestry and natural resource management with an eye towards sustaining healthy forest ecosystems, adapting them to climate change, protecting them from invasive species, and responding to changing market forces.
Ecological Silvicultural Systems readers will also find: - Detailed treatment of forest ecosystems in North America, Europe, South America, and Australia - A broad field of contributors with decades of combined expertise on multiple continents - Discussion of pine woodlands; temperate hardwood forests, boreal forests, temperate rainforests, and more
Ecological Silvicultural Systems is a useful reference for professional foresters, wildlife habitat managers, restoration ecologists, and undergraduate and graduate students in any of these fields.
Table of Contents
List of Contributors xv
Preface xviii
Acknowledgments xix
1 The Context of Ecological Silviculture 1
Brian J. Palik and Anthony W. D’Amato
1.1 What Is Ecological Silviculture? 1
1.2 How Does Ecological Silviculture Differ from Classical Commodity- Focused Silviculture? 2
1.3 Why Is Ecological Silviculture Needed? 2
1.4 What Are the Foundational Concepts of Ecological Silviculture? 3
1.5 What to Expect from the Chapters that Follow? 8
References 8
2 Ecological Silviculture for Great Lakes Red Pine Ecosystems 11
Brian J. Palik and Anthony W. D’Amato
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Characteristics of Red Pine Ecosystems 11
2.2.1 Composition and Structure 11
2.2.2 Natural Disturbance Regime 13
2.2.3 Natural Development Model 14
2.2.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 14
2.2.3.2 Preforest Stage 14
2.2.3.3 Young Forest Stage 15
2.2.3.4 Mature Forest Stage 15
2.2.3.5 Old Forest Stage 15
2.2.3.6 The Cycle of Disturbance and Development 16
2.3 An Ecological Silvicultural System for Red Pine Ecosystems 16
2.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 17
2.3.2 Preforest Stage 17
2.3.3 Young Forest Stage (Early) 19
2.3.4 Young Forest Stage (Later) 19
2.3.5 Mature Forest Stage 20
2.3.6 Old Forest Stage 21
2.3.7 Natural- Origin Stands Versus Plantations 21
2.4 Climate Change Considerations 22
2.5 Summary 22
References 23
3 Ecological Silviculture for Northern Hardwood Ecosystems of Northeastern U.S. 25
Anthony W. D’Amato
3.1 Introduction 25
3.2 Characteristics of Northern Hardwood Ecosystems 26
3.2.1 Composition and Structure 26
3.2.2 Historical Natural Disturbance Regime 28
3.2.3 Natural Development Model 28
3.2.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 29
3.2.3.2 Preforest Stage 29
3.2.3.3 Young Forest Stage 30
3.2.3.4 Mature Forest Stage 30
3.2.3.5 Old Forest Stage 30
3.2.4 The Cycle of Disturbance and Development 30
3.3 An Ecological Silvicultural System for Northern Hardwood Ecosystems 31
3.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 31
3.3.2 Preforest Stage 31
3.3.3 Young Forest Stage (Early) 34
3.3.4 Young Forest Stage (Later) 34
3.3.5 Mature Forest Stage 34
3.3.6 Old Forest Stage 36
3.4 Climate Change Considerations 36
3.5 Summary 37
References 38
4 Ecological Silviculture in Douglas- fir-Western Hemlock Ecosystems 40
Abraham Wheeler, Jerry F. Franklin, and Stephanie J. Wessell
4.1 Introduction 40
4.2 Characteristics of Douglas- fir-Western Hemlock Ecosystems 41
4.2.1 Tree Species Composition 41
4.2.2 Natural Disturbance Regime and Developmental Model 41
4.2.2.1 Natural Disturbance 41
4.2.2.2 Preforest Stage 41
4.2.2.3 Young Forest Stage 42
4.2.2.4 Mature Forest Stage 42
4.2.2.5 Old Forest Stage 42
4.3 Essential Elements of an Ecological Silvicultural System for Douglas-fir-Western Hemlock Ecosystems 42
4.3.1 Landscape Context 43
4.3.2 Special Features 43
4.3.3 Spatial Heterogeneity 43
4.3.4 Structural Retention 43
4.3.5 Species Diversity 43
4.3.6 Limited Use of Chemicals 44
4.3.7 Regeneration Approaches 44
4.3.8 Silvicultural System 44
4.3.8.1 Emulating Natural Disturbance 44
4.3.8.2 Long Recovery Periods 46
4.3.8.3 Large, Open Harvest Areas 46
4.3.8.4 Ecological Thinning 46
4.3.9 Ecological Silvicultural Tradeoffs 47
4.4 Real- World Application of an Ecological Silvicultural System for the DF-WH Ecosystem 48
4.5 Climate Change Considerations 48
4.6 Summary 51
References 51
5 Ecological Silviculture for Longleaf Pine Woodlands in the Southeastern U.S. 53
Steven B. Jack, Benjamin O. Knapp, and R. Kevin McIntyre
5.1 Introduction 53
5.2 Characteristics of Longleaf Pine Ecosystems 54
5.2.1 Natural History 54
5.2.2 Natural Disturbance 54
5.2.3 Composition and Structure 55
5.3 Development Model 57
5.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 58
5.3.2 Preforest Stage 58
5.3.3 Young Forest Stage 58
5.3.4 Mature Forest Stage 58
5.3.5 Old Forest Stage 59
5.4 Prevailing Silvicultural Systems 59
5.5 An Ecological Silvicultural System for Longleaf Pine 59
5.5.1 Ecological Silviculture to Maintain Mature Forests 61
5.5.2 Ecological Silviculture for Restoration 61
5.6 Climate Change Considerations 63
5.7 Summary 64
References 64
6 Ecological Silviculture for Southeastern US Pine-Oak Forests 67
Justin L. Hart, J. Davis Goode, and Daniel C. Dey
6.1 Introduction 67
6.2 Characteristics of Pine- Oak Ecosystems 67
6.2.1 Silvics of Common Species 68
6.2.2 Disturbance Ecology 70
6.3 Development Model 71
6.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 71
6.3.2 Preforest Stage 71
6.3.3 Young Forest Stage 72
6.3.4 Mature Forest Stage 72
6.3.5 Old Forest Stage 73
6.4 Ecological Silvicultural Systems for Pine- Oak Ecosystems 73
6.4.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 75
6.4.2 Preforest Stage 76
6.4.3 Young Forest Stage 77
6.4.4 Mature Forest Stage 77
6.4.5 Old Forest Stage 78
6.5 Climate Change Considerations 78
6.6 Summary 78
References 79
7 Ecological Silviculture for Lowland Wet Conifer Forest Lake States 81
Marcella A. Windmuller-Campione, Laura F. Reuling, Robert A. Slesak, and Randy K. Kolka
7.1 Overview 81
7.2 Glacial History 82
7.3 Plant Community Composition 83
7.4 Historical Natural Disturbance Regime 84
7.4.1 Stand- Replacing Disturbance 84
7.4.2 Gap Dynamics 86
7.5 Silvics of Black Spruce and Eastern Larch 86
7.6 Current/Conventional Silvicultural Approaches 88
7.7 Natural Development Model for Lowland Conifer Ecosystems 89
7.7.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 89
7.7.2 Preforest Stage 89
7.7.3 Young Forest Stage 89
7.7.4 Mature Forest Stage and Old Forest Stage 89
7.8 Ecological Silviculture System 90
7.8.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 91
7.8.2 Preforest Stage and Young Forest Stages 91
7.8.3 Mature Forest Stage and Old Forest Stages 91
7.9 Climate Changes Impact on Lowland Conifer Ecosystems 92
7.10 Summary 92
References 94
8 Ecological Silviculture for Southern Appalachian Hardwood Forests 98
Jodi A. Forrester, Tara L. Keyser, and David K. Schnake
8.1 The Southern Appalachian Mixed- Oak Forests 98
8.2 Contemporary Forests of the Southern Appalachians 99
8.3 Structure, Composition, and Development of the Southern Appalachian Mixed-Oak Ecosystem 101
8.3.1 Structure and Composition 101
8.3.2 Natural Development Model 103
8.4 Regenerating Upland Oak Forests in the Southern Appalachians 104
8.5 An Ecologically Based Silvicultural System for Mixed- Oak Ecosystems 105
8.5.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 105
8.5.2 Preforest Stage 106
8.5.3 Young Forest Stage 107
8.5.4 Mature Forest Stage 107
8.5.5 Old Forest Stage 108
8.6 Climate Change Considerations 108
8.7 Summary 108
References 109
9 Ecological Silviculture for Yellow Birch-Conifer Mixedwoods in Eastern Canada 112
Patricia Raymond and Daniel Dumais
9.1 Introduction 112
9.2 Characteristics of Yellow Birch-Conifer Mixedwoods 112
9.2.1 Species Composition 112
9.2.2 Structure 115
9.2.3 Historical Natural Disturbance Regime 115
9.2.4 Natural Development Model 116
9.2.4.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 119
9.2.4.2 Young Forest Stage 120
9.2.4.3 Mature Forest Stage 120
9.2.4.4 Old Forest Stage 120
9.3 An Ecological Silvicultural System for Yellow Birch-Conifer Mixedwoods 120
9.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 120
9.3.2 Young Forest Stage 121
9.3.3 Mature Forest Stage 123
9.3.4 Old Forest Stage 123
9.4 Climate Change Considerations 124
9.5 Summary 124
Acknowledgments 125
References 125
10 Ecological Silviculture of Black Spruce in Canadian Boreal Forests 128
Miguel Montoro Girona, Martin Alcala Pajares, and Maxence Martin
10.1 Introduction 128
10.2 Characteristics of Black Spruce Forests 128
10.2.1 Distribution and Composition 128
10.2.2 Climate, Soil, and Topography 130
10.3 Black Spruce Forest Types 130
10.3.1 Black Spruce-Feathermoss Forests 130
10.3.2 Black Spruce-Lichen Forests 130
10.3.3 Black Spruce-Dwarf Shrub Forests 131
10.4 Developmental Model for Black Spruce Forests 131
10.5 Emulating Natural Dynamics of Black Spurce Forests with Sivliculture 135
10.5.1 Clear-cutting as Tool to Emulate High-severity Wildfire 135
10.5.2 Thinning to Restore Complex Structures 135
10.5.3 Diameter-Limit Cuts to Emulate Secondary Disturbances of High Severity 136
10.5.4 Shelterwoods to Emulate Moderate- Severity Secondary Disturbances 136
10.5.5 Selection Harvests to Emulate Low- Severity Disturbances and Background Mortality 137
10.6 Summary 138
References 138
11 Ecological Silviculture for Acadian Forests 141
Robert S. Seymour
11.1 Introduction and Context 141
11.2 Ecological Characteristics 141
11.3 Models of Disturbance and Stand Development 144
11.4 Restoration Challenges and Possible Pathways 148
11.5 Regeneration Treatments at the Mature Forest Stage 149
11.6 Silvicultural Systems Based on Natural Disturbance Parameters - The Acadian Femelschlag 149
11.6.1 Tending Gap Regeneration - The Young Forest Stage 150
11.6.2 Locating Skid Trails, Initial Gaps, and Reserve Trees 151
11.6.3 Results After 27 Years 151
11.7 Climate Considerations 153
11.8 Summary 153
References 153
12 Ecological Silviculture for Sierra Nevada Mixed Conifer Forests 156
Robert A. York
12.1 Introduction 156
12.2 Characteristics of Sierra Nevada Mixed Conifer Forests 157
12.2.1 The Disturbance Regime, Composition, and Structure 157
12.2.2 Current Silviculture in the Sierra Nevada MCF 158
12.2.2.1 Planted Forests 158
12.2.2.2 Partial Harvests 159
12.2.2.3 Fuel Treatments 159
12.3 Natural Development Model 160
12.3.1 Disturbance, Legacy Creation, and Preforest 160
12.3.2 Young Forest 161
12.3.3 Mature and Old Forest 162
12.4 An Ecological Silviculture System for Mixed Conifer Forests 163
12.5 Climate Change Considerations 164
12.6 Using the Natural Development Model to Alter Existing Systems 165
12.6.1 Planted Forests 165
12.6.2 Partial Harvests 166
12.6.3 Fuel Treatments 166
References 166
13 Ecological Silviculture for Aspen Mixedwoods in Western Canada 169
S. Ellen Macdonald, Philip G. Comeau, Charles A. Nock, and Brad D. Pinno
13.1 Introduction 169
13.2 Natural Disturbance and Successional Dynamics 170
13.3 Current Silvicultural Approaches 173
13.4 Ecological Silvicultural Systems for Boreal Mixedwoods in Western Canada 173
13.4.1 Harvesting Options for Boreal Mixedwoods Under Ecological Silvicultural Systems 174
13.4.1.1 Retention Harvesting 174
13.4.1.2 Understory Protection Harvesting 174
13.4.2 Regeneration Options for Boreal Mixedwoods Under Ecological Silvicultural Systems 177
13.4.3 Tending Options for Boreal Mixedwoods Under Ecological Silvicultural Systems 178
13.5 Policy Challenges 178
13.6 Climate Change Considerations for Boreal Mixedwood Management 179
13.7 How Does This Bring Management Closer to Nature? 179
References 180
14 Ecological Silviculture for Interior Ponderosa Pine and Dry Mixed-Conifer Ecosystems 184
Andrew J. Larson and Derek J. Churchill
14.1 Introduction 184
14.2 Characteristics of Ponderosa Pine and Dry- Mixed Conifer Ecosystems 185
14.2.1 Composition and Structure 185
14.2.2 Disturbance Regime 186
14.2.3 Developmental Model 189
14.3 An Ecological Silvicultural System for Ponderosa Pine and Dry- Mixed Conifer Ecosystems 189
14.3.1 Incorporating Prescribed Fire in Silvicultural Treatments 192
14.4 Example Applications of Ecological Silviculture in Contrasting Initial Conditions 193
14.4.1 High Density, Even-Aged 193
14.4.2 High Density, Multi-Cohort with Abundant Fire- and Drought-Tolerant Species 194
14.4.3 High-Density Lacking Healthy Trees of the Desired Species 194
14.4.4 Recent Moderate- or High-Severity Wildfire 195
14.4.5 Low Density, Multi-Cohort 196
14.5 Climate Change Considerations 196
14.6 Summary 197
References 197
15 Ecological Silviculture for North American Pacific Coastal Temperate Rainforests 199
Justin S. Crotteau, William J. Beese, John-Pascal Berrill, Robert L. Deal, Constance A. Harrington, and Kellen N. Nelson
15.1 Introduction 199
15.2 Characteristics of Temperate Rainforest Ecosystems 200
15.2.1 Tree Composition, Size, and Age Structure 200
15.2.2 Natural Disturbances and Stand Development 201
15.2.3 Developmental Model 201
15.2.3.1 Preforest Stage 202
15.2.3.2 Young Forest Stage 202
15.2.3.3 Mature Forest Stage 202
15.2.3.4 Old Forest Stage 202
15.3 An Ecological Silvicultural System for the Temperate Rainforest 202
15.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 204
15.3.2 Preforest Stage 204
15.3.3 Young Forest Stage (Early) 207
15.3.4 Young Forest Stage (Late) 207
15.3.5 Mature Forest Stage 208
15.3.6 Old Forest Stage 209
15.4 Climate Change Considerations 209
15.5 Summary 210
Acknowledgments 211
References 211
16 Ecological Silviculture for Oak Ecosystems of the Central Hardwoods Region, USA 213
Miranda T. Curzon and John M. Kabrick
16.1 Introduction 213
16.2 Characteristics of Central Hardwood Forests and Woodlands 214
16.2.1 Composition and Structure 214
16.2.2 Natural Disturbance 215
16.3 Natural Developmental Model 216
16.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 217
16.3.2 Preforest Stage 218
16.3.3 Young Stage 218
16.3.4 Mature Stage 218
16.3.5 Old Stage 218
16.4 Ecological Silvicultural Systems for Central Hardwoods Ecosystems 219
16.4.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 219
16.4.2 Preforest Stage 222
16.4.3 Young Stage 222
16.4.4 Mature Stage 223
16.4.5 Old Stage 224
16.5 Climate Change Considerations 224
16.6 Summary 225
Acknowledgments 226
References 226
17 Ecological Silviculture for Fennoscandian Scots Pine Ecosystems 229
Timo Kuuluvainen and Timo Pukkala
17.1 Introduction 229
17.2 Structure, Dynamics, and Composition of Scots Pine Ecosystems 231
17.3 Dead Standing Kelo Trees as a Key Component of Fennoscandian Pine Forests 232
17.4 Evolution of Ecological Silviculture of Scots Pine Forests 233
17.5 Toward Ecological Silviculture for Scots Pine in Fennoscandia 234
17.6 Reconciling Economic Profitability with Biodiversity: A Case Study Using Any-Aged Forestry 235
17.7 Ecological Silviculture in Fennoscandia: Policy Context and Future Prospects 239
17.8 Conclusions 240
References 241
18 Silvicultural Systems in the Mountain Ash Forests of the Central Highlands of Victoria, South-eastern Australia 244
David B. Lindenmayer
18.1 Introduction 244
18.2 Ecosystem Characteristics 245
18.3 Prevailing Silvicultural Systems in Mountain Ash Forests 246
18.3.1 Clear-Cutting 246
18.3.2 Variable Retention Harvesting Systems 246
18.4 Natural Development Model and Silviculture 250
18.5 The Challenges for Mountain Ash Silviculture: Climate Change and Other Drivers 251
18.6 A New Silvicultural Model for Mountain Ash Forests 253
Acknowledgments 254
References 254
19 Ecological Silviculture for European Beech-Dominated Forest Ecosystems 257
Thomas A. Nagel, Miroslav Svoboda, Lucie Vítková, and Dušan Roenbergar
19.1 Introduction 257
19.2 Characteristics and Natural Dynamics of European Beech-Dominated Ecosystems 257
19.2.1 Composition 257
19.2.2 Disturbance Regime 259
19.2.3 Developmental Model 259
19.2.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 259
19.2.3.2 Preforest Stage 259
19.2.3.3 Young Forest Stage 260
19.2.3.4 Mature Forest Stage 261
19.2.3.5 Old Forest Stage 261
19.3 Conventional Silvicultural Approach 262
19.4 Ecological Silviculture for European Beech- Dominated Ecosystems 263
19.4.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 263
19.4.2 Preforest Stage 266
19.4.3 Young Forest Stage 266
19.4.4 Mature Forest Stage 267
19.4.5 Old Forest Stage 267
19.5 Climate Change Considerations 268
19.6 Summary 268
References 269
20 Ecological Silviculture for Chilean Temperate Rainforests 271
Pablo J. Donoso and Daniel P. Soto
20.1 Introduction 271
20.2 Characteristics of the Evergreen Forest Type (EFT) 272
20.2.1 Composition, Structure, and Growth 272
20.2.2 Forest Disturbance and Dynamics 273
20.2.3 Secondary Forest Development Following Human Disturbances 275
20.3 Natural Developmental Model 276
20.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 276
20.3.2 Young Forest Stage 276
20.3.3 Mature Forest Stage 276
20.3.4 Old Forest Stage 278
20.4 An Ecological Silvicultural System for the Chilean Hardwood- Dominated Evergreen Forest Type 279
20.4.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 279
20.4.2 Young Forest Stage 279
20.4.3 Mature Forest Stage 280
20.4.4 Old Forest Stage 280
20.5 Summary: Ecological Silviculture for Chilean Temperate Forests 281
Acknowledgments 282
References 282
21 The Place of Ecological Silviculture, Now and in the Future 286
Anthony W. D’Amato and Brian J. Palik
21.1 Introduction 286
21.2 A Diversity of Approaches for a Diversity of Forests 286
21.2.1 Commonalities Among Ecological Silvicultural Approaches 287
21.2.2 Differences Among Ecological Silvicultural Approaches 289
21.3 Conclusions 290
References 291
Index 292
