Optical networks are an integral part of many of the technologies that we use every day. It is a constantly changing and evolving area, with new materials, processes, and applications coming online almost daily.
This book provides a basis for discussing open principles, methods and research problems in the modeling of optical communication networks. It also provides a systematic overview of the state-of-the-art research efforts and potential research directions dealing with optical communication metworks. It also simultaneously focuses on extending the limits of currently used systems encompassing optical and wireless domains and explores novel research on wireless and optical techniques and systems, describing practical implementation activities, results and issues.
A handbook on applications for both academia and industry, this exciting new volume includes detailed discussions on real-world case studies on trends and emerging technologies associated with modeling of optical communication networks. This book also describes several numerical models and algorithms for simulation and optimization of optical communication networks. Modeling and optimization presents several opportunities for automating operations and introducing intelligent decision making in network planning and in dynamic control and management of network resources, including issues like connection establishment, self-configuration, and self-optimization, through prediction and estimation by utilizing present network state and historical data. It focuses on extending the limits of currently used systems encompassing optical and wireless domains, and explores the latest developments in applications like photonics, high speed communication systems and networks, visible light communication, nano-photonics, wireless, and MIMO systems.
Table of Contents
Preface xv
1 Investigation on Optical Sensors for Heart Rate Monitoring 1
V. Vijeya Kaveri, V. Meenakshi, N. Kousika and A. Pushpalatha
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Overview of PPG 2
1.2.1 PPG Waveform 2
1.2.2 Photoplethysmography Waveforms Based on the Origin of Optical Concern 2
1.2.3 Photoplethysmography’s Early on and Modern Records 3
1.2.4 Building Blocks of Photoplethysmography 4
1.2.5 Protocol Measurement and Reproducibility 6
1.3 Clinical Application - Heart Rate Monitoring 7
1.4 Summary 8
References 8
2 Adopting a Fusion Approach for Optical Amplification 11
E. Francy Irudaya Rani, T. Lurthu Pushparaj and E. Fantin Irudaya Raj
2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 The Mechanism Involved 13
2.3 Types of Amplifier 14
2.3.1 Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers 14
2.3.1.1 Various Phases and Progress of SOA 15
2.3.2 Fiber Raman Amplifiers 16
2.3.3 Fiber Brillouin Amplifiers 17
2.3.4 Doped-Fiber Amplifiers 17
2.4 Hybrid Optical Amplifiers 19
2.4.1 EDFA and SOA Hybrid 21
2.4.2 EDFA and FRA Hybrid 21
2.4.3 RFA and SOA Hybrid 22
2.4.4 Combination of EYDWA as well as SOA 23
2.4.5 EDFA-EYCDFA Hybrid 23
2.4.6 TDFA Along with RFA Hybrid 23
2.4.7 EDFA and TDFA Hybrid 23
2.5 Applications 24
2.5.1 Telecom Infrastructure Optical Power Amplifier 26
2.6 Current Scenario 27
2.7 Discussion 28
2.8 Conclusions 30
References 30
3 Optical Sensors 35
M. Shanthi, R. Niraimathi, V. Chamundeeswari and Mahaboob Subahani Akbarali
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Glass Fibers 36
3.3 Plastic Fibers 37
3.4 Optical Fiber Sensors Advantages Over Traditional Sensors 37
3.5 Fiber Optic Sensor Principles 38
3.6 Classification of Fiber Optic Sensors 38
3.6.1 Intrinsic Fiber Optic Sensor 39
3.6.2 Extrinsic Fiber Optic Sensor 39
3.6.3 Intensity-Modulated Sensors 40
3.6.3.1 Intensity Type Fiber Optic Sensor Using Evanescent Wave Coupling 41
3.6.3.2 Intensity Type Fiber Optic Sensor Using Microbend Sensor 41
3.6.4 Phase Modulated Fiber Optic Sensors 42
3.6.4.1 Fiber Optic Gyroscope 43
3.6.4.2 Fiber-Optic Current Sensor 43
3.6.5 Polarization Modulated Fiber Optic Sensors 43
3.6.6 Physical Sensor 44
3.6.6.1 Temperature Sensors 44
3.6.6.2 Proximity Sensor 45
3.6.6.3 Depth/Pressure Sensor 45
3.6.7 Chemical Sensor 45
3.6.8 Bio-Medical Sensor 46
3.7 Optical Fiber Sensing Applications 49
3.7.1 Application in the Medicinal Field 50
3.7.2 Application in the Agriculture Field 50
3.7.3 Application in Civil Infrastructure 50
3.8 Conclusion 51
References 51
4 Defective and Failure Sensor Detection and Removal in a Wireless Sensor Network 53
Prasannavenkatesan Theerthagiri
4.1 Introduction 53
4.2 Related Works 55
4.3 Proposed Detection and Elimination Approach 56
4.3.1 Scanning Algorithm for Cut Tracking (SCT) 63
4.3.2 Eliminate Faulty Sensor Algorithm (EFS) 64
4.4 Results and Discussion 66
4.5 Performance Evaluation 68
4.6 Conclusion 70
References 71
5 Optical Fiber and Prime Optical Devices for Optical Communication 75
Srividya P.
5.1 Introduction 76
5.2 Optic Fiber Systems Development 77
5.3 Optical Fiber Transmission Link 77
5.4 Optical Sources Suited for Optical Fiber Communication 79
5.5 LED as Optical Source 80
5.6 Laser as Light Source 84
5.7 Optical Fiber 86
5.8 Fiber Materials 89
5.9 Benefits of Optical Fiber 90
5.10 Drawbacks of Optical Fiber 90
5.11 Recent Advancements in Fiber Technology 90
5.12 Photodetector 92
5.13 Future of Optical Fiber Communication 95
5.14 Applications of Optical Fibers in the Industry 96
5.15 Conclusion 97
References 97
6 Evaluation of Lower Layer Parameters in Body Area Networks 99
Abhilash Hedge and Durga Prasad
6.1 Introduction 100
6.2 Problem Definition 101
6.3 Baseline MAC in IEEE 802.15.6 102
6.4 Ultra Wideband (UWB) PHY 103
6.5 Castalia 103
6.5.1 Features 103
6.6 Methodology 105
6.6.1 Simulation Method in Castalia 105
6.6.2 Hardware Methodology 105
6.7 Results and Discussion 106
6.8 Hardware Setup Using Bluetooth Module 118
6.9 Hardware Setup Using ESP 12-E 118
6.10 Conclusions 122
References 122
7 Analyzing a Microstrip Antenna Sensor Design for Achieving Biocompatibity 125
Sonam Gour, Abha Sharma and Amit Rathi
7.1 Introduction 125
7.2 Designing of Biomedical Antenna 126
7.3 Sensing Device for Biomedical Application 128
7.4 Conclusion 133
References 133
8 Photonic Crystal Based Routers for All Optical Communication Networks 137
T. Sridarshini, Shanmuga Sundar Dhanabalan, V.R. Balaji, A. Manjula, S. Indira Gandhi and A. Sivanantha Raja
8.1 Introduction 138
8.2 Photonic Crystals 140
8.2.1 1D Photonic Crystals 140
8.2.2 2D Photonic Crystals 141
8.2.3 3D Photonic Crystals 142
8.2.4 Photonic Bandgap 142
8.2.5 Applications 144
8.3 Routers 145
8.4 Micro Ring Resonators 145
8.5 Optical Routers 147
8.5.1 Routers Based on PCRR 147
8.5.2 N x N Router Structures 149
8.5.2.1 3 x 3 Router 150
8.5.2.2 4 x 4 Router 151
8.5.2.3 6 x 6 Router 154
8.5.3 Routers Based on PC Line Defect 157
8.6 Summary 159
References 160
9 Fiber Optic Communication: Evolution, Technology, Recent Developments, and Future Trends 163
Dankan G. Veeranna, M. Nagabushanam, Sridhara S. Boraiah, Ramesha Muniyappa and Devananda S. Narayanappa
9.1 Introduction 164
9.2 Basic Principles 167
9.3 Future Trends in Fiber Optics Communication 171
9.4 Advantages 174
9.5 Conclusion 176
References 177
10 Difficulties of Fiber Optic Setup and Maintenance in a Developing Nation 179
Dankan G. Veeranna, M. Nagabushanam, Sridhara S. Boraiah, Ramesha Muniyappa and Devananda S. Narayanappa
10.1 Introduction 180
10.2 Related Works 181
10.3 Fiber Optic Cable 182
10.3.1 Single-Mode Cable 182
10.3.2 Multimode Cable 183
10.3.2.1 Step-Index Multimode Fiber 183
10.3.2.2 Graded-Index Multimode Fiber 183
10.3.3 Deployed Fiber Optics Cable 184
10.4 Fiber Optics Cable Deployment Strategies 184
10.4.1 Aerial Installation 184
10.4.2 Underground Installation 185
10.4.2.1 Direct-Buried 185
10.4.2.2 Installation in Duct 185
10.5 Deployment of Fiber Optics Throughout the World 186
10.5.1 Fiber Optics Deployment in India 187
10.5.2 Submarine Fiber Optic in India 187
10.5.3 Installation of Fiber Optic Cable in the Inland 188
10.6 Fiber Deployment Challenges 188
10.6.1 Deploying Fiber has a Number of Technical Difficulties 188
10.6.2 Right of Way 189
10.6.3 Administrative Challenges 189
10.6.4 Post-Fiber Deployment Management 190
10.6.5 Fiber Optic Cable Deployment and Management Standards and Best Practices 191
10.7 Conclusion 191
References 191
11 Machine Learning-Enabled Flexible Optical Transport Networks 193
Sridhar Iyer, Rahul Jashvantbhai Pandya, N. Jeyakkannan and C. Karthik
11.1 Introduction 194
11.2 Review of SDM-EON Physical Models 198
11.2.1 Optical Fibers for SDM-EON 198
11.2.2 Switching Techniques for SDM-EON 200
11.3 Review of SDM-EON Resource Assignment Techniques 205
11.4 Research Challenges in SDM-EONs 209
11.5 Conclusion 210
References 211
12 Role of Wavelength Division Multiplexing in Optical Communication 217
P. Gunasekaran, A. Azhagu Jaisudhan Pazhani, A. Rameshbabu and B. Kannan
12.1 Introduction 218
12.2 Modules of an Optical Communication System 219
12.2.1 How a Fiber Optic Communication Works? 220
12.2.2 Codes of Fiber Optic Communication System 220
12.2.2.1 Dense Light Source 221
12.2.2.2 Low Loss Optical Fiber 221
12.2.3 Photo Detectors 223
12.3 Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM) 223
12.3.1 Transceivers - Transmitting Data as Light 224
12.3.2 Multiplexers Enhancing the Use of Fiber Channels 225
12.3.3 Categories of WDM 225
12.4 Modulation Formats in WDM Systems 226
12.4.1 Optical Modulator 227
12.4.1.1 Direct Modulation 227
12.4.1.2 External Modulation 227
12.4.2 Modulation Formats 228
12.4.2.1 Non Return to Zero (NRZ) 229
12.4.2.2 Return to Zero (RZ) 230
12.4.2.3 Chirped RZ (CRZ) 231
12.4.2.4 Carrier Suppressed RZ (CSRZ) 232
12.4.2.5 Differential Phase Shift Key (DPSK) 232
12.4.3 Uses of Wavelength Division Multiplexing 233
References 233
13 Optical Ultra-Sensitive Nanoscale Biosensor Design for Water Analysis 235
Shaikh Afzal and Manju Devi
13.1 Introduction 236
13.2 Related Work or Literature Survey 237
13.2.1 B. Cereus Spores’ Study for Water Quality 237
13.2.2 History Use of Optical Property for Biosensing 238
13.2.3 Photonic Crystal 239
13.3 Tools and Techniques 240
13.3.1 Opti FDTD 240
13.3.2 EM Wave Equation 240
13.3.3 Optical Ring Resonator 241
13.3.4 Output Power Computation 242
13.4 Proposed Design 243
13.4.1 Circular Resonator PHC Biosensor 243
13.4.2 Triangular Structure PHC Biosensor 244
13.5 Simulation 244
13.6 Result and Analysis 244
13.7 Conclusion and Future Scope 248
References 249
14 A Study on Connected Cars-V2V Communication 251
Chandra Singh, Sachin C. N. Shetty, Manjunatha Badiger and Nischitha
14.1 Introduction 251
14.2 Literature Survey 252
14.3 Software Description 255
14.4 Methodology 256
14.5 Working 257
14.6 Advantages and Applications 263
14.7 Conclusion and Future Scope 263
Future Scope 264
References 264
15 Broadband Wireless Network Era in Wireless Communication - Routing Theory and Practices 267
R. Prabha, G. A. Senthil, S. K. B. Sangeetha, S.U. Suganthi and D. Roopa
15.1 Introduction 268
15.2 Outline of Broadband Wireless Networking 270
15.2.1 Type of Broadband Wireless Networks 270
15.2.1.1 Fixed Networks 270
15.2.1.2 The Broadband Mobile Wireless Networks 271
15.2.2 BWN Network Structure 272
15.2.3 Wireless Broadband Applications 273
15.2.4 Promising Approaches Beyond BWN 273
15.3 Routing Mechanisms 274
15.4 Security Issues and Mechanisms in BWN 276
15.4.1 DoS Attack 276
15.4.2 Distributed Flooding DoS 277
15.4.3 Rogue and Selfish Backbone Devices 277
15.4.4 Authorization Flooding on Backbone Devices 277
15.4.5 Node Deprivation Attack 278
15.5 Conclusion 278
References 278
16 Recent Trends in Optical Communication, Challenges and Opportunities 281
S. Kannadhasan and R. Nagarajan
16.1 Introduction 281
16.2 Optical Fiber Communication 284
16.3 Applications of Optical Communication 286
16.4 Various Sectors of Optical Communication 291
16.5 Conclusion 301
References 302
17 Photonic Communication Systems and Networks 303
Naitik S.T., J.V. Gorabal, Shailesh Shetty, Srinivas P.M. and Girish S.
17.1 Introduction 304
17.2 History of LiFi 305
17.3 LiFi Standards 306
17.4 Related Work 308
17.5 Methodology 324
17.6 Proposed Model 325
17.7 Experiment and Results 326
17.8 Applications 326
17.9 Conclusion 328
Acknowledgment 328
References 328
18 RSA-Based Encryption Approach for Preserving Confidentiality Against Factorization Attacks 331
Raghunandan K. R.
18.1 Introduction 331
18.2 Related Work 333
18.3 Mathematical Preliminary 335
18.4 Proposed System 337
18.5 Performance Analysis 339
18.6 Conclusion 345
References 346
19 Sailfish Optimizer Algorithm (SFO) for Optimized Clustering in Internet of Things (IoT) Related to the Healthcare Industry 349
Battina Srinuvasu Kumar, S.G. Santhi and S. Narayana
19.1 Introduction 350
19.2 Related Works 351
19.3 Proposed Method 352
19.4 System Model 353
19.5 Energy Model 353
19.6 Cluster Formation Using SFO 354
19.7 Results and Discussion 357
19.8 Conclusions 361
References 362
20 Li-Fi Technology and Its Applications 365
Sumiksha Shetty, Smitha A.B. and Roshan Rai
20.1 Introduction 365
20.2 Technology Portrayal 367
20.2.1 Li-Fi Modulation Methods 367
20.3 Distinctive Modulation of Li-Fi 369
20.4 Antiquity of Improvements and Li-Fi Innovation 370
20.5 Li-Fi Technology and Its Advantages 371
20.5.1 Free Spectrum 371
20.5.2 Efficiency 371
20.5.3 Accessibility 372
20.5.4 Complexity 372
20.5.5 Security 372
20.5.6 Safety 372
20.5.7 No Fading 373
20.5.8 Cost-Effective 373
20.6 Confines of Li-Fi Innovation 373
20.6.1 Obstructions 374
20.6.2 High Path Forfeiture 374
20.6.3 Uplink Problems 374
20.6.4 NLOS Problems 374
20.7 Application of Li-Fi Technology 375
20.7.1 Spaces wherein Exploiting of RF would be Controlled 375
20.7.1.1 Hospitals 375
20.7.1.2 Airplanes 375
20.7.1.3 Sensitive Floras 375
20.7.2 Traffic Flow Management 376
20.7.3 Submerged Applications 376
20.7.4 Outdoor Permission to the Cyberspace 376
20.7.5 Educational Tenacities 377
20.7.6 Amalgamation of Wi-Fi vs. Li-Fi 377
20.7.7 Optical Attocell 377
20.7.8 Multiple User Permission 378
References 379
21 Smart Emergency Assistance Using Optics 381
Chandra Singh, Sachin C. N. Shetty, Manjunatha Badiger and Nischitha
21.1 Introduction 381
21.2 Literature Survey 382
21.3 Methodology 385
21.3.1 Block Diagram Description 386
21.3.2 Concept and Overview 387
21.4 Design and Implementation 388
21.5 Results & Discussion 393
21.6 Conclusion 394
References 394
About the Editors 397
Index 399
