Global Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) Market 2026-2046

Table of Contents

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 
1.1 Main sources of carbon dioxide emissions
1.2 CO2 as a commodity 
1.3 Meeting climate targets  
1.4 Market drivers and trends  
1.5 The current market and future outlook  
1.6 CCUS Industry developments 2020-2025  
1.7 CCUS investments  
1.7.1 Venture Capital Funding  
1.7.1.1 2010-2024  
1.7.1.2 CCUS VC deals 2022-2025  
1.8 Government CCUS initiatives and policy environment  
1.8.1 North America  
1.8.2 Europe  
1.8.3 Asia  
1.8.3.1 Japan  
1.8.3.2 Singapore  
1.8.3.3 China  
1.9 Market map  
1.10 Commercial CCUS facilities and projects  
1.10.1 Facilities  
1.10.1.1 Operational  
1.10.1.2 Under development/construction  
1.11 Economics of CCUS projects  
1.12 CCUS Value Chain  
1.13 Key market barriers for CCUS  
1.14 CCUS and the energy trilemma  
1.15 Carbon pricing  
1.15.1 Compliance Carbon Pricing Mechanisms  
1.15.2 Alternative to Carbon Pricing: 45Q Tax Credits  
1.15.3 Business models  
1.15.4 The European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS)  
1.15.5 Carbon Pricing in the US  
1.15.6 Carbon Pricing in China  
1.15.7 Voluntary Carbon Markets  
1.15.8 Challenges with Carbon Pricing  
1.16 Global market forecasts  
1.16.1 CCUS capture capacity forecast by end point  
1.16.2 Capture capacity by region to 2046, Mtpa  
1.16.3 Revenues  
1.16.4 CCUS capacity forecast by capture type  
1.16.5 Cost projections 2025-2046  

2 INTRODUCTION  
2.1 What is CCUS?  
2.1.1 Carbon Capture  
2.1.1.1 Source Characterization  
2.1.1.2 Purification  
2.1.1.3 CO2 capture technologies  
2.1.2 Carbon Utilization 
2.1.2.1 CO2 utilization pathways  
2.1.3 Carbon storage  
2.1.3.1 Passive storage  
2.1.3.2 Enhanced oil recovery  
2.2 Transporting CO2  
2.2.1 Methods of CO2 transport  
2.2.1.1 Pipeline 
2.2.1.2 Ship  
2.2.1.3 Road  
2.2.1.4 Rail  
2.2.2 Safety  
2.3 Costs  
2.3.1 Cost of CO2 transport  
2.4 Carbon credits
2.5 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of CCUS Technologies  
2.6 Environmental Impact Assessment  
2.7 Social acceptance and public perception  

3 CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE  
3.1 CO2 capture technologies  
3.2 >90% capture rate  
3.3 99% capture rate  
3.4 CO2 capture from point sources  
3.4.1 Energy Availability and Costs  
3.4.2 Power plants with CCUS  
3.4.3 Transportation  
3.4.4 Global point source CO2 capture capacities  
3.4.5 By source  
3.4.6 Blue hydrogen  
3.4.6.1 Steam-methane reforming (SMR)  
3.4.6.2 Autothermal reforming (ATR)  
3.4.6.3 Partial oxidation (POX)  
3.4.6.4 Sorption Enhanced Steam Methane Reforming (SE-SMR)  
3.4.6.5 Pre-Combustion vs. Post-Combustion carbon capture  
3.4.6.6 Blue hydrogen projects  
3.4.6.7 Costs  
3.4.6.8 Market players  
3.4.7 Carbon capture in cement 
3.4.7.1 CCUS Projects  
3.4.7.2 Carbon capture technologies  
3.4.7.3 Costs  
3.4.7.4 Challenges  
3.4.8 Maritime carbon capture  
3.5 Main carbon capture processes  
3.5.1 Materials  
3.5.2 Post-combustion  
3.5.2.1 Chemicals/Solvents  
3.5.2.2 Amine-based post-combustion CO2 absorption 
3.5.2.3 Physical absorption solvents  
3.5.3 Oxy-fuel combustion  
3.5.3.1 Oxyfuel CCUS cement projects  
3.5.3.2 Chemical Looping-Based Capture  
3.5.4 Liquid or supercritical CO2: Allam-Fetvedt Cycle  
3.5.5 Pre-combustion  
3.6 Carbon separation technologies  
3.6.1 Absorption capture  
3.6.2 Adsorption capture  
3.6.2.1 Solid sorbent-based CO2 separation  
3.6.2.2 Metal organic framework (MOF) adsorbents  
3.6.2.3 Zeolite-based adsorbents  
3.6.2.4 Solid amine-based adsorbents  
3.6.2.5 Carbon-based adsorbents  
3.6.2.6 Polymer-based adsorbents  
3.6.2.7 Solid sorbents in pre-combustion  
3.6.2.8 Sorption Enhanced Water Gas Shift (SEWGS)  
3.6.2.9 Solid sorbents in post-combustion  
3.6.3 Membranes  
3.6.3.1 Membrane-based CO2 separation  
3.6.3.2 Post-combustion CO2 capture  
3.6.3.2.1 Facilitated transport membranes  
3.6.3.3 Pre-combustion capture  
3.6.4 Liquid or supercritical CO2 (Cryogenic) capture  
3.6.4.1 Cryogenic CO2 capture  
3.6.5 Calcium Looping  
3.6.5.1 Calix Advanced Calciner  
3.6.6 Other technologies  
3.6.6.1 LEILAC process  
3.6.6.2 CO2 capture with Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs)  
3.6.6.3 CO2 capture with Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) 
3.6.6.4 Microalgae Carbon Capture  
3.6.7 Comparison of key separation technologies  
3.6.8 Technology readiness level (TRL) of gas separation technologies  
3.7 Opportunities and barriers  
3.8 Costs of CO2 capture  
3.9 CO2 capture capacity  
3.10 Direct air capture (DAC) 
3.10.1 Technology description  
3.10.1.1 Sorbent-based CO2 Capture  
3.10.1.2 Solvent-based CO2 Capture 
3.10.1.3 DAC Solid Sorbent Swing Adsorption Processes  
3.10.1.4 Electro-Swing Adsorption (ESA) of CO2 for DAC  
3.10.1.5 Solid and liquid DAC  
3.10.2 Advantages of DAC  
3.10.3 Deployment  
3.10.4 Point source carbon capture versus Direct Air Capture  
3.10.5 Technologies  
3.10.5.1 Solid sorbents  
3.10.5.2 Liquid sorbents  
3.10.5.3 Liquid solvents  
3.10.5.4 Airflow equipment integration  
3.10.5.5 Passive Direct Air Capture (PDAC)  
3.10.5.6 Direct conversion  
3.10.5.7 Co-product generation  
3.10.5.8 Low Temperature DAC  
3.10.5.9 Regeneration methods  
3.10.6 Electricity and Heat Sources  
3.10.7 Commercialization and plants  
3.10.8 Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) in DAC  
3.10.9 DAC plants and projects-current and planned  
3.10.10 Capacity forecasts  
3.10.11 Costs  
3.10.12 Market challenges for DAC  
3.10.13 Market prospects for direct air capture  
3.10.14 Players and production  
3.10.15 Co2 utilization pathways  
3.10.16 Markets for Direct Air Capture and Storage (DACCS)  
3.10.16.1 Fuels 
3.10.16.1.1 Overview  
3.10.16.1.2 Production routes  
3.10.16.1.3 Methanol  
3.10.16.1.4 Algae based biofuels  
3.10.16.1.5 CO2-fuels from solar  
3.10.16.1.6 Companies  
3.10.16.1.7 Challenges  
3.10.16.2 Chemicals, plastics and polymers  
3.10.16.2.1 Overview  
3.10.16.2.2 Scalability  
3.10.16.2.3 Plastics and polymers  
3.10.16.2.3.1 CO2 utilization products  
3.10.16.2.4 Urea production  
3.10.16.2.5 Inert gas in semiconductor manufacturing  
3.10.16.2.6 Carbon nanotubes  
3.10.16.2.7 Companies  
3.10.16.3 Construction materials  
3.10.16.3.1 Overview  
3.10.16.3.2 CCUS technologies  
3.10.16.3.3 Carbonated aggregates  
3.10.16.3.4 Additives during mixing  
3.10.16.3.5 Concrete curing  
3.10.16.3.6 Costs  
3.10.16.3.7 Companies  
3.10.16.3.8 Challenges  
3.10.16.4 CO2 Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting  
3.10.16.4.1 Overview  
3.10.16.4.2 Applications  
3.10.16.4.2.1 Greenhouses  
3.10.16.4.2.2 Algae cultivation  
3.10.16.4.2.3 Microbial conversion  
3.10.16.4.3 Companies  
3.10.16.5 Food and feed production  
3.10.16.6 CO2 Utilization in Enhanced Oil Recovery  
3.10.16.6.1 Overview  
3.10.16.6.1.1 Process
3.10.16.6.1.2 CO2 sources  
3.10.16.6.2 CO2-EOR facilities and projects  
3.11 Hybrid Capture Systems  
3.12 Artificial Intelligence in Carbon Capture 
3.13 Integration with Renewable Energy Systems  
3.14 Mobile Carbon Capture Solutions  
3.15 Carbon Capture Retrofitting  

4 CARBON DIOXIDE REMOVAL  
4.1 Conventional CDR on land 
4.1.1 Wetland and peatland restoration  
4.1.2 Cropland, grassland, and agroforestry  
4.2 Technological CDR Solutions  
4.3 Main CDR methods  
4.4 Novel CDR methods 
4.5 Value chain  
4.6 Deployment of carbon dioxide removal technologies  
4.7 Technology Readiness Level (TRL): Carbon Dioxide Removal Methods
4.8 Carbon Credits  
4.8.1 Description  
4.8.2 Carbon pricing  
4.8.3 Carbon Removal vs Carbon Avoidance Offsetting  
4.8.4 Carbon credit certification  
4.8.5 Carbon registries 
4.8.6 Carbon credit quality  
4.8.7 Voluntary Carbon Credits  
4.8.7.1 Definition  
4.8.7.2 Purchasing  
4.8.7.3 Key Market Players and Projects  
4.8.7.4 Pricing  
4.8.8 Compliance Carbon Credits  
4.8.8.1 Definition  
4.8.8.2 Market players  
4.8.8.3 Pricing  
4.8.9 Durable carbon dioxide removal (CDR) credits  
4.8.10 Corporate commitments  
4.8.11 Increasing government support and regulations  
4.8.12 Advancements in carbon offset project verification and monitoring  
4.8.13 Potential for blockchain technology in carbon credit trading  
4.8.14 Buying and Selling Carbon Credits  
4.8.14.1 Carbon credit exchanges and trading platforms  
4.8.14.2 Over-the-counter (OTC) transactions  
4.8.14.3 Pricing mechanisms and factors affecting carbon credit prices  
4.8.15 Certification  
4.8.16 Challenges and risks  
4.9 Monitoring, reporting, and verification  
4.10 Government policies  
4.11 Bioenergy with Carbon Removal and Storage (BiCRS)  
4.11.1 Feedstocks  
4.11.2 BiCRS Conversion Pathways  
4.12 BECCS  
4.12.1 Technology overview  
4.12.1.1 Point Source Capture Technologies for BECCS  
4.12.1.2 Energy efficiency  
4.12.1.3 Heat generation  
4.12.1.4 Waste-to-Energy  
4.12.1.5 Blue Hydrogen Production  
4.12.2 Biomass conversion  
4.12.3 CO2 capture technologies  
4.12.4 BECCS facilities  
4.12.5 Cost analysis  
4.12.6 BECCS carbon credits  
4.12.7 Sustainability  
4.12.8 Challenges  
4.13 Mineralization-based CDR  
4.13.1 Overview  
4.13.2 Storage in CO2-Derived Concrete  
4.13.3 Oxide Looping  
4.13.4 Enhanced Weathering  
4.13.4.1 Overview  
4.13.4.2 Benefits  
4.13.4.3 Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification (MRV)  
4.13.4.4 Applications  
4.13.4.5 Commercial activity and companies  
4.13.4.6 Challenges and Risks  
4.13.5 Cost analysis  
4.13.6 SWOT analysis  
4.14 Afforestation/Reforestation  
4.14.1 Overview  
4.14.2 Carbon dioxide removal methods  
4.14.2.1 Nature-based CDR 
4.14.2.2 Land-based CDR
4.14.3 Technologies 
4.14.3.1 Remote Sensing  
4.14.3.2 Drone technology and robotics  
4.14.3.3 Automated forest fire detection systems  
4.14.3.4 AI/ML  
4.14.3.5 Genetics  
4.14.4 Trends and Opportunities  
4.14.5 Challenges and Risks  
4.14.5.1 SWOT analysis  
4.14.5.2 Soil carbon sequestration (SCS)  
4.14.5.2.1 Overview  
4.14.5.2.2 Practices  
4.14.5.2.3 Measuring and Verifying 
4.14.5.2.4 Trends and Opportunities  
4.14.5.2.5 Carbon credits  
4.14.5.2.6 Challenges and Risks  
4.14.5.2.7 SWOT analysis  
4.14.5.3 Biochar  
4.14.5.3.1 What is biochar?  
4.14.5.3.2 Carbon sequestration  
4.14.5.3.3 Properties of biochar  
4.14.5.3.4 Feedstocks  
4.14.5.3.5 Production processes  
4.14.5.3.5.1 Sustainable production  
4.14.5.3.5.2 Pyrolysis  
4.14.5.3.5.2.1 Slow pyrolysis  
4.14.5.3.5.2.2 Fast pyrolysis  
4.14.5.3.5.3 Gasification  
4.14.5.3.5.4 Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC)  
4.14.5.3.5.5 Torrefaction  
4.14.5.3.5.6 Equipment manufacturers  
4.14.5.3.6 Biochar pricing  
4.14.5.3.7 Biochar carbon credits  
4.14.5.3.7.1 Overview  
4.14.5.3.7.2 Removal and reduction credits  
4.14.5.3.7.3 The advantage of biochar 
4.14.5.3.7.4 Prices  
4.14.5.3.7.5 Buyers of biochar credits  
4.14.5.3.7.6 Competitive materials and technologies  
4.14.5.3.8 Bio-oil based CDR  
4.14.5.3.9 Biomass burial for CO2 removal  
4.14.5.3.10 Bio-based construction materials for CDR  
4.14.5.3.11 SWOT analysis  
4.15 Ocean-based CDR  
4.15.1 Overview  
4.15.2 CO2 capture from seawater  
4.15.3 Ocean fertilisation 
4.15.3.1 Biotic Methods  
4.15.3.2 Coastal blue carbon ecosystems  
4.15.3.3 Algal Cultivation  
4.15.3.4 Artificial Upwelling  
4.15.4 Ocean alkalinisation  
4.15.4.1 Electrochemical ocean alkalinity enhancement  
4.15.4.2 Direct Ocean Capture  
4.15.4.3 Artificial Downwelling  
4.15.5 Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification (MRV)  
4.15.6 Ocean-based CDR Carbon Credits  
4.15.7 Trends and Opportunities  
4.15.8 Ocean-based carbon credits  
4.15.9 Cost analysis  
4.15.10 Challenges and Risks  
4.15.11 SWOT analysis  
4.15.12 Companies  

5 CARBON DIOXIDE UTILIZATION  
5.1 Overview  
5.1.1 Current market status  
5.2 Competition with other low carbon technoogies  
5.3 Carbon utilization business models  
5.3.1 Benefits of carbon utilization  
5.3.2 Market challenges  
5.4 Co2 utilization pathways  
5.5 Conversion processes  
5.5.1 Thermochemical  
5.5.1.1 Process overview  
5.5.1.2 Plasma-assisted CO2 conversion  
5.5.2 Electrochemical conversion of CO2  
5.5.2.1 Process overview  
5.5.3 Photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic conversion of CO2  
5.5.4 Catalytic conversion of CO2  
5.5.5 Biological conversion of CO2  
5.5.6 Copolymerization of CO2  
5.5.7 Mineral carbonation  
5.6 CO2-Utilization in Fuels  
5.6.1 Overview  
5.6.2 Production routes  
5.6.3 CO2 -fuels in road vehicles  
5.6.4 CO2 -fuels in shipping  
5.6.5 CO2 -fuels in aviation  
5.6.6 Costs of e-fuel  
5.6.7 Power-to-methane  
5.6.7.1 Thermocatalytic pathway to e-methane 
5.6.7.2 Biological fermentation 
5.6.7.3 Costs  
5.6.8 Algae based biofuels  
5.6.9 DAC for e-fuels  
5.6.10 Syngas Production Options  
5.6.11 CO2-fuels from solar  
5.6.12 Companies  
5.6.13 Challenges  
5.6.14 Global market forecasts 2025-2046 
5.7 CO2-Utilization in Chemicals 
5.7.1 Overview  
5.7.2 Carbon nanostructures  
5.7.3 Scalability  
5.7.4 Pathways  
5.7.4.1 Thermochemical  
5.7.4.2 Electrochemical  
5.7.4.2.1 Low-Temperature Electrochemical CO2 Reduction  
5.7.4.2.2 High-Temperature Solid Oxide Electrolyzers  
5.7.4.2.3 Coupling H2 and Electrochemical CO2 Reduction  
5.7.4.3 Microbial conversion  
5.7.4.4 Other  
5.7.4.4.1 Photocatalytic  
5.7.4.4.2 Plasma technology  
5.7.5 Applications  
5.7.5.1 Urea production  
5.7.5.2 CO2-derived polymers  
5.7.5.2.1 Pathways  
5.7.5.2.2 Polycarbonate from CO2  
5.7.5.2.3 Methanol to olefins (polypropylene production)  
5.7.5.2.4 Ethanol to polymers  
5.7.5.3 Inert gas in semiconductor manufacturing  
5.7.6 Companies  
5.7.7 Global market forecasts 2025-2046 
5.8 CO2-Utilization in Construction and Building Materials  
5.8.1 Overview  
5.8.2 Market drivers  
5.8.3 Key CO2 utilization technologies in construction  
5.8.4 Carbonated aggregates 
5.8.5 Additives during mixing  
5.8.6 Concrete curing  
5.8.7 Costs  
5.8.8 Market trends and business models  
5.8.9 Carbon credits  
5.8.10 Companies  
5.8.11 Challenges 
5.8.12 Global market forecasts  
5.9 CO2-Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting  
5.9.1 Overview  
5.9.2 CO2 utilization in biological processes  
5.9.3 Applications  
5.9.3.1 Greenhouses  
5.9.3.1.1 CO2 enrichment  
5.9.3.2 Algae cultivation  
5.9.3.2.1 CO2-enhanced algae cultivation: open systems 
5.9.3.2.2 CO2-enhanced algae cultivation: closed systems  
5.9.3.3 Microbial conversion  
5.9.3.4 Food and feed production  
5.9.4 Companies  
5.9.5 Global market forecasts 2025-2046 
5.10 CO2 Utilization in Enhanced Oil Recovery  
5.10.1 Overview  
5.10.1.1 Process 
5.10.1.2 CO2 sources  
5.10.2 CO2-EOR facilities and projects 
5.10.3 Challenges 
5.10.4 Global market forecasts 2025-2046 
5.11 Enhanced mineralization  
5.11.1 Advantages  
5.11.2 In situ and ex-situ mineralization  
5.11.3 Enhanced mineralization pathways  
5.11.4 Challenges  
5.12 Digital Solutions and IoT in Carbon Utilization  
5.13 Blockchain Applications in Carbon Trading  
5.14 Carbon Utilization in Data Centers  
5.15 Integration with Smart City Infrastructure  
5.16 Novel Applications  
5.16.1 3D Printing with CO2-derived Materials  
5.16.2 CO2 in Energy Storage  
5.16.3 CO2 in Electronics Manufacturing  

6 CARBON DIOXIDE STORAGE  
6.1 Introduction  
6.2 CO2 storage sites  
6.2.1 Storage types for geologic CO2 storage 
6.2.2 Oil and gas fields  
6.2.3 Saline formations  
6.2.4 Coal seams and shale  
6.2.5 Basalts and ultra-mafic rocks  
6.3 CO2 leakage  
6.4 Global CO2 storage capacity  
6.5 CO2 Storage Projects  
6.6 CO2 -EOR  
6.6.1 Description  
6.6.2 Injected CO2 
6.6.3 CO2 capture with CO2 -EOR facilities  
6.6.4 Companies  
6.6.5 Economics  
6.7 Costs  
6.8 Challenges  
6.9 Storage Monitoring Technologies  
6.10 Underground Hydrogen Storage Synergies  
6.11 Advanced Modelling and Simulation  
6.12 Storage Site Selection Criteria  
6.13 Risk Assessment and Management  

7 CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORTATION  
7.1 Introduction  
7.2 CO2 transportation methods and conditions  
7.3 CO2 transportation by pipeline  
7.4 C02 transportation by ship  
7.5 CO2 transportation by rail and truck  
7.6 Cost analysis of different methods  
7.7 Smart Pipeline Networks  
7.8 Transportation Hubs and Infrastructure  
7.9 Safety Systems and Monitoring  
7.10 Future Transportation Technologies 
7.11 Companies  

8 COMPANY PROFILES  

• 3R-BioPhosphate  
• Adaptavate 
• Again  
• Aeroborn B.V. 
• Aether Diamonds  
• AirCapture LLC 
• Aircela Inc  
• Airco Process Technology  
• Air Company  
• Air Liquide S.A.  
• Air Products and Chemicals, Inc.  
• Air Protein  
• Air Quality Solutions Worldwide DAC  
• Airex Energy  
• AirHive  
• Airovation Technologies 
• Algal Bio Co., Ltd.  
• Algenol  
• Algiecel ApS  
• Andes Ag, Inc.  
• Aqualung Carbon Capture  
• Arborea  
• Arca  
• Arkeon Biotechnologies  
• Asahi Kasei  
• AspiraDAC Pty Ltd.  
• Aspiring Materials  
• Atoco  
• Avantium N.V.  
• Avnos, Inc.  
• Aymium  
• Axens SA  
• Azolla  
• Barton Blakeley Technologies Ltd.  
• BASF Group  
• BC Biocarbon  
• BP PLC  
• Biochar Now  
• Bio-Logica Carbon Ltd.  
• Biomacon GmbH  
• Biosorra  
• Blue Planet Systems Corporation  
• Blusink Ltd.  
• Boomitra  
• Brineworks  
• BluSky, Inc.  
• Breathe Applied Sciences  
• Bright Renewables  
• Brineworks  
• Brilliant Planet Systems  
• bse Methanol GmbH  
• C-Capture  
• C4X Technologies Inc.  
• C2CNT LLC  
• Calcin8 Technologies Limited  
• Cambridge Carbon Capture Ltd.  
• Capchar Ltd.  
• Captura Corporation  
• Captur Tower  
• Capture6  
• Carba  
• CarbiCrete  
• Carbfix  
• Carboclave  
• Carbo Culture  
• Carbofex Oy  
• Carbominer  
• Carbonade  
• Carbonaide Oy  
• Carbonaught Pty Ltd.  
• CarbonFree  
• Carbonova  
• CarbonScape Ltd.  
• Carbon8 Systems  
• Carbon Blade  
• Carbon Blue  
• CarbonBuilt
• Carbon CANTONNE  
• Carbon Capture, Inc. (CarbonCapture) 
• Carbon Capture Machine (UK)  
• Carbon Centric AS  
• Carbon Clean Solutions Limited  
• Carbon Collect Limited 
• CarbonCure Technologies Inc.  
• Carbon Geocapture Corp  
• Carbon Engineering Ltd.  
• CarbonFree  
• Carbon Infinity Limited  
• Carbon Limit  
• Carbon Neutral Fuels  
• Carbon Recycling International  
• Carbon Re  
• Carbon Reform, Inc.  
• Carbon Ridge, Inc.  
• Carbon Sink LLC  
• CarbonStar Systems  
• Carbon Upcycling Technologies  
• Carbonfree Chemicals  
• CarbonMeta Research Ltd  
• CarbonOrO Products B.V.  
• CarbonQuest  
• Carbon-Zero US LLC  
• Carbyon BV  
• Cella Mineral Storage  
• Cemvita Factory Inc.  
• CERT Systems, Inc.  
• CFOAM Limited  
• Charm Industrial  
• Chevron Corporation 
• Chiyoda Corporation  
• China Energy Investment Corporation (CHN Energy)  
• Citroniq Chemicals LLC  
• Clairity Technology  
• Climeworks  
• CNF Biofuel AS  
• CO2 Capsol  
• CO280  
• CO2Rail Company  
• CO2CirculAir B.V.  
• Compact Carbon Capture AS (Baker Hughes)  
• Concrete4Change  
• Cool Planet Energy Systems  
• CORMETECH  
• Coval Energy B.V.  
• Covestro AG
• C-Quester Inc.  
• C-Questra  
• Cquestr8 Limited  
• CREW Carbon  
• CyanoCapture  
• D-CRBN  
• Decarbontek LLC  
• Deep Branch Biotechnology  
• Deep Sky  
• Denbury Inc.  
• Dimensional Energy  
• Dioxide Materials  
• Dioxycle  
• Drax 
• 8Rivers  
• Earth RepAIR  
• Ebb Carbon  
• Ecocera  
• ecoLocked GmbH  
• EDAC Labs  
• Eion Carbon 
• Econic Technologies Ltd  
• EcoClosure LLC  
• Electrochaea GmbH  
• Emerging Fuels Technology (EFT)  
• Empower Materials, Inc.  
• Enerkem, Inc.  
• enaDyne GmbH  
• Entropy Inc.  
• E-Quester  
• Equatic  
• Equinor ASA 
• Evonik Industries AG  
• Exomad Green 
• ExxonMobil  
• 44.01  
• Fairbrics  
• Fervo Energy  
• Fluor Corporation  
• Fortera Corporation  
• Framergy, Inc.  
• Freres Biochar  
• FuelCell Energy, Inc 
• Funga  
• GE Gas Power (General Electric)  
• Giammarco Vetrocoke  
• GigaBlue  
• Giner, Inc
• Global Algae Innovations  
• Global Thermostat LLC  
• Graphyte  
• Grassroots Biochar AB  
• Graviky Labs  
• GreenCap Solutions AS  
• Greenlyte Carbon Technologies  
• Greeniron H2 AB  
• Green Sequest  
• Gulf Coast Sequestration  
• Greenlyte Carbon Technologies  
• greenSand  
• Hago Energetics  
• Haldor Topsoe  
• Heimdal CCU  
• Heirloom Carbon Technologies 
• High Hopes Labs  
• Holcim Group  
• Holocene  
• Holy Grail, Inc.  
• Honeywell  
• Oy Hydrocell Ltd.  
• Hyvegeo  
• 1point8  
• IHI Corporation  
• Immaterial Ltd 0
• Ineratec GmbH  
• Infinitree LLC  
• Innovator Energy  
• InnoSepra LLC 
• Inplanet GmbH  
• InterEarth  
• ION Clean Energy, Inc.  
• Japan CCS Co., Ltd.  
• Jupiter Oxygen Corporation  
• Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Ltd.  
• KC8 Capture Technologies (KC8)  
• Krajete GmbH  
• LanzaJet, Inc.  
• Lanzatech  
• Lectrolyst LLC  
• Levidian Nanosystems  
• Limenet 1 
• The Linde Group  
• Liquid Wind AB  
• Lithos Carbon  
• Living Carbon  
• Loam Bio 
• Low Carbon Korea  
• Low Carbon Materials  
• Made of Air GmbH  
• Mango Materials, Inc 
• Mantel Capture  
• Mars Materials  
• Mattershift  
• MCI Carbon  
• Mercurius Biorefining  
• Minera Systems  
• Mineral Carbonation International (MCi) Carbon  
• Mission Zero Technologies  
• Mitsui Chemicals, Inc.  
• Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd.  
• MOFWORX  
• Molten Industries, Inc.  
• Mosaic Materials, Inc. (Baker Hughes)  
• Mote  
• Myno Carbon  
• Nanyang Zhongju Tianguan Low Carbon Technology Company  
• NEG8 Carbon  
• NeoCarbon  
• Net Power, LLC  
• NetZero  
• Neustark AG  
• Nevel AB  
• Newlight Technologies LLC  
• New Sky Energy  
• Njord Carbon  
• Norsk e-Fuel AS  
• Novocarbo GmbH  
• novoMOF AG  
• Novo Nutrients  
• Noya  
• Nuada Carbon Capture  
• Oakbio  
• Obrist Group  
• Occidental Petroleum Corp.  
• O.C.O Technology  
• OCOchem  
• Octavia Carbon  
• Onnu  
• Orchestra Scientific S.L.  
• Origen Carbon Solutions  
• Osaki CoolGen Corporation  
• OXCCU Tech Ltd.  
• OxEon Energy, LLC  
• Oxylum
• Oxylus Energy  
• Paebbl AB  
• Parallel Carbon Limited 
• Perpetual Next Technologies  
• Photanol B.V.  
• Phycobloom  
• Phytonix Corporation  
• Plantd  
• Planetary Technologies  
• Pond Technologies  
• Prometheus Fuels, Inc.  
• Prometheus Materials  
• PTTEP  
• Proton Power, Inc.  
• Pure Life Carbon. Inc.  
• PYREG GmbH  
• PyroCCS 
• Qaptis  
• RedoxNRG  
• Remora  
• Removr  
• RepAir Carbon DAC Ltd.  
• Rewind  
• Rplace  
• Rubi Laboratories, Inc.  
• rubisCO2  
• Saipem S.p.A.  
• Seabound  
• Seachange Technologies  
• Sekisui Chemical  
• SeaO2  
• Seeo2 Energy, Inc.  
• Seaweed Generation  
• Seratech  
• Shell plc  
• Silicate Carbon  
• Sirona Technologies  
• SkyMining AB  
• SkyNano Technologies  
• Skyrenu Technologies  
• Skytree  
• SLB Capturi  
• Solar Foods Oy  
• Soletair Power Oy  
• Solidia Technologies  
• South Ocean Air  
• Southern Green Gas  
• Spiritus Technologies
• Steeper Energy  
• Stiesdal  
• Stockholm Exergi AB  
• Storegga Geotechnologies Limited  
• Sublime Systems  
• Sunfire GmbH 
• Sustaera  
• Svante, Inc.  
• Synhelion  
• Quantiam Technologies Inc.  
• Takachar  
• Tandem Technical  
• TerraCOH, Inc.  
• TerraFixing, Inc.  
• Terra CO2 Technologies Ltd.  
• TierraSpec Ltd.  
• TotalEnergies SE  
• Travertine Technologies, Inc.  
• Twelve  
• Ulysses Ecosystem Engineering  
• Underground Forest  
• UNDO Carbon Ltd.  
• UniSieve Ltd.  
• UP Catalyst  
• Vertus Energy Ltd.  
• Verdox  
• ViridiCO2  
• Vortis Carbon Co.  
• Vycarb  
• Wakefield BioChar  
• WasteX  
• Yama Carbon  
• YuanChu Technology Corp.  
• Zero Carbon Systems  
• ZoraMat Solutions 
• ZS2 Technologies

9 APPENDICES  
9.1 Abbreviations 
9.2 Research Methodology  
9.3 Definition of Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS)  
9.4 Technology Readiness Level (TRL)  

10 REFERENCES

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS) market drivers and trends. 
Table 2. Carbon capture, usage, and storage (CCUS) industry developments 2020-2025. 
Table 3. Global Investment in Carbon Capture Technologies (2010-2024) 
Table 4. CCUS VC deals 2022-2025. 
Table 5. CCUS government funding and investment-10 year outlook. 
Table 6. Demonstration and commercial CCUS facilities in China. 
Table 7. Global commercial CCUS facilities-in operation. 
Table 8. Global commercial CCUS facilities-under development/construction. 
Table 9. Key market barriers for CCUS. 
Table 10. Key compliance carbon pricing initiatives around the world. 
Table 11. CCUS business models: full chain, part chain, and hubs and clusters.  
Table 12. CCUS capture capacity forecast by CO2 endpoint, Mtpa of CO2, to 2046.  
Table 13. Capture capacity by region to 2046, Mtpa. 
Table 14. CCUS revenue potential for captured CO2 offtaker, billion US $ to 2046.  
Table 15. CCUS capacity forecast by capture type, Mtpa of CO2, to 2046
Table 16. Point-source CCUS capture capacity forecast by CO2 source sector, Mtpa of CO2, to 2046.  
Table 17. CCUS Cost Projections 2025-2046.  
Table 18. CO2 utilization and removal pathways  
Table 19. Approaches for capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from point sources. 
Table 20. CO2 capture technologies.  
Table 21. Advantages and challenges of carbon capture technologies 
Table 22. Overview of commercial materials and processes utilized in carbon capture 
Table 23. Methods of CO2 transport
Table 24. Comparison of CO2 Transportation Methods
Table 25. Estimated capital costs for commercial-scale carbon capture 
Table 26. Key Milestones in Carbon Market Development  
Table 27.Carbon Credit Prices by Market.  
Table 28. Carbon Credit Project Types.  
Table 29. Life Cycle Assessment of CCUS Technologies  
Table 30. Environmental Impact Assessment for CCUS Technologies 
Table 31. Comparison of CO2 capture technologies 
Table 32. Typical conditions and performance for different capture technologies
Table 33. PSCC technologies
Table 34. Point source examples
Table 35. Comparison of point-source CO2 capture systems
Table 36. Blue hydrogen projects 
Table 37. Commercial CO2 capture systems for blue H2 
Table 38. Market players in blue hydrogen
Table 39. CCUS Projects in the Cement Sector.
Table 40. Carbon capture technologies in the cement sector. 
Table 41. Cost and technological status of carbon capture in the cement sector.  
Table 42. Assessment of carbon capture materials  
Table 43. Chemical solvents used in post-combustion.  
Table 44. Comparison of key chemical solvent-based systems.  
Table 45. Chemical absorption solvents used in current operational CCUS point-source projects.  
Table 46.Comparison of key physical absorption solvents.  
Table 47.Physical solvents used in current operational CCUS point-source projects.  
Table 48. Emerging solvents for carbon capture  
Table 49. Oxygen separation technologies for oxy-fuel combustion.  
Table 50. Large-scale oxyfuel CCUS cement projects.  
Table 51. Commercially available physical solvents for pre-combustion carbon capture.  
Table 52. Main capture processes and their separation technologies 
Table 53. Absorption methods for CO2 capture overview.  
Table 54. Commercially available physical solvents used in CO2 absorption.  
Table 55. Adsorption methods for CO2 capture overview.  
Table 56. Solid sorbents explored for carbon capture.  
Table 57. Carbon-based adsorbents for CO2 capture.  
Table 58. Polymer-based adsorbents.  
Table 59. Solid sorbents for post-combustion CO2 capture
Table 60. Emerging Solid Sorbent Systems.  
Table 61. Membrane-based methods for CO2 capture overview.  
Table 62. Comparison of membrane materials for CCUS  
Table 63.Commercial status of membranes in carbon capture  
Table 64. Membranes for pre-combustion capture.  
Table 65. Status of cryogenic CO2 capture technologies.  
Table 66. Benefits and drawbacks of microalgae carbon capture. 
Table 67. Comparison of main separation technologies
Table 68. Technology readiness level (TRL) of gas separation technologies  
Table 69. Opportunities and Barriers by sector.  
Table 70. DAC technologies.  
Table 71. Advantages and disadvantages of DAC.  
Table 72. Advantages of DAC as a CO2 removal strategy.  
Table 73. Potential for DAC removal versus other carbon removal methods.  
Table 74. Companies developing airflow equipment integration with DAC.  
Table 75. Companies developing Passive Direct Air Capture (PDAC) technologies.  
Table 76. Companies developing regeneration methods for DAC technologies 
Table 77. DAC companies and technologies
Table 78. Global capacity of direct air capture facilities
Table 79. DAC technology developers and production.  
Table 80. DAC projects in development.  
Table 81. DACCS carbon removal capacity forecast (million metric tons of CO2 per year), 2024-2046, base case
Table 82. DACCS carbon removal capacity forecast (million metric tons of CO2 per year), 2030-2046, optimistic case
Table 83. Costs summary for DAC 
Table 84. Typical cost contributions of the main components of a DACCS system
Table 85. Cost estimates of DAC 
Table 86. Challenges for DAC technology.  
Table 87. DAC companies and technologies.  
Table 88. Example CO2 utilization pathways.  
Table 89. Markets for Direct Air Capture and Storage (DACCS).  
Table 90. Market overview for CO2 derived fuels.  
Table 91. Compnaies in Methanol Production from CO2 
Table 92. Microalgae products and prices 
Table 93. Main Solar-Driven CO2 Conversion Approaches 
Table 94. Companies in CO2-derived fuel products
Table 95. Commodity chemicals and fuels manufactured from CO2 
Table 96. CO2 utilization products developed by chemical and plastic producers.  
Table 97. Companies in CO2-derived chemicals products.  
Table 98. Carbon capture technologies and projects in the cement sector  
Table 99. Companies in CO2 derived building materials
Table 100. Market challenges for CO2 utilization in construction materials.  
Table 101. Companies in CO2 Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting.  
Table 102. CO2 sequestering technologies and their use in food.  
Table 103. Applications of CCS in oil and gas production.  
Table 104. AI Applications in Carbon Capture.  
Table 105. Renewable Energy Integration in Carbon Capture.  
Table 106. Mobile Carbon Capture Applications.  
Table 107. Carbon Capture Retrofitting.  
Table 108.Market Drivers for Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) 
Table 109. CDR versus CCUS 
Table 110. Status and Potential of CDR Technologies 
Table 111. Main CDR methods 
Table 112. Novel CDR Methods  
Table 113.Carbon Dioxide Removal Technology Benchmarking  
Table 114. CDR Value Chain 
Table 115. Engineered Carbon Dioxide Removal Value Chain  
Table 116. Carbon pricing and carbon markets  
Table 117. Carbon Removal vs Emission Reduction Offsets 
Table 118. Carbon Crediting Programs 
Table 119. Channels for Purchasing Voluntary Carbon Credits  
Table 120. Voluntary Carbon Credits Trading Platforms and Exchanges 
Table 121. Voluntary Carbon Credits Key Market Players and Projects 
Table 122. Nature-Based Solutions Market Dynamics 
Table 123. Voluntary Carbon Credits Pricing by Category and Project Type 
Table 124. Price Range Analysis by Project Quality and Type 
Table 125. Compliance Carbon Credits Key Market Players and Projects 
Table 126. Comparison of Voluntary and Compliance Carbon Credits 
Table 127. Durable Carbon Removal Buyers
Table 128. Prices of CDR Credits 
Table 129. Major Corporate Carbon Credit Commitments 
Table 130. Key Carbon Market Regulations and Support Mechanisms 
Table 131. Carbon credit prices by company and technology 
Table 132. Carbon Credit Exchanges and Trading Platforms
Table 133. OTC Carbon Market Characteristics
Table 134. Challenges and Risks 
Table 135. TRL of Biomass Conversion Processes and Products by Feedstock. 
Table 136. BiCRS feedstocks.  
Table 137. BiCRS conversion pathways.  
Table 138. BiCRS Technological Challenges.  
Table 139. CO2 capture technologies for BECCS.  
Table 140. Existing and planned capacity for sequestration of biogenic carbon.  
Table 141. Existing facilities with capture and/or geologic sequestration of biogenic CO2.  
Table 142. Challenges of BECCS  
Table 143. Ex Situ Mineralization CDR Methods.  
Table 144. Source Materials for Ex Situ Mineralization.  
Table 145. Companies in CO2-derived Concrete.  
Table 146. Enhanced Weathering Applications.  
Table 147. Enhanced Weathering Materials and Processes.  
Table 148. Enhanced Weathering Companies  
Table 149. Trends and Opportunities in Enhanced Weathering.  
Table 150. Challenges and Risks in Enhanced Weathering.  
Table 151. Cost analysis of enhanced weathering.  
Table 152. Nature-based CDR approaches.  
Table 153. Comparison of A/R and BECCS.  
Table 154. Forest Carbon Removal Projects.  
Table 155. Companies in Robotics in A/R.  
Table 156. Trends and Opportunities in Afforestation/Reforestation.  
Table 157.Challenges and Risks in Afforestation/Reforestation.  
Table 158. Soil carbon sequestration practices.  
Table 159. Soil sampling and analysis methods.  
Table 160. Remote sensing and modeling techniques.  
Table 161. Carbon credit protocols and standards.  
Table 162. Trends and opportunities in soil carbon sequestration (SCS) 
Table 163. Key aspects of soil carbon credits 
Table 164. Challenges and Risks in SCS 
Table 165. Summary of key properties of biochar
Table 166. Biochar physicochemical and morphological properties  
Table 167. Biochar feedstocks-source, carbon content, and characteristics 
Table 168. Biochar production technologies, description, advantages and disadvantages 
Table 169. Comparison of slow and fast pyrolysis for biomass 
Table 170. Comparison of thermochemical processes for biochar production 
Table 171. Biochar production equipment manufacturers 
Table 172. Competitive materials and technologies that can also earn carbon credits 
Table 173. Bio-oil-based CDR pros and cons 
Table 174. Ocean-based CDR methods 
Table 175. Technology Readiness Level (TRL) Chart for Ocean-based CDR 
Table 176. Benchmarking of Ocean-based CDR Methods 
Table 177. Ocean-based CDR: Biotic Methods 
Table 178. Market Players in Ocean-based CDR 
Table 179. Carbon utilization revenue forecast by product (US$) 
Table 180. Carbon utilization business models.  
Table 181. CO2 utilization and removal pathways 
Table 182. Market challenges for CO2 utilization.  
Table 183. Example CO2 utilization pathways.  
Table 184. CO2 derived products via Thermochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.  
Table 185. CO2 derived products via electrochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.  
Table 186. CO2 derived products via biological conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.  
Table 187. Companies developing and producing CO2-based polymers 
Table 188. Companies developing mineral carbonation technologies 
Table 189. Comparison of emerging CO2 utilization applications.  
Table 190. Main routes to CO2-fuels.  
Table 191. Market overview for CO2 derived fuels.  
Table 192. Main routes to CO2 -fuels  
Table 193.Comparison of e-fuels to fossil and biofuels.  
Table 194. Existing and future CO2-derived synfuels (kerosene, diesel, and gasoline) projects 
Table 195. CO2-Derived Methane Projects. 
Table 196. Power-to-Methane projects worldwide.  
Table 197. Power-to-Methane projects.  
Table 198. Microalgae products and prices
Table 199. Syngas Production Options for E-fuels.  
Table 200. Main Solar-Driven CO2 Conversion Approaches.  
Table 201. Companies in CO2-derived fuel products.  
Table 202. CO2 utilization forecast for fuels by fuel type (million tonnes of CO2/year), 2025-2046.  
Table 203. Global revenue forecast for CO2-derived fuels by fuel type (million US$), 2025-2046.  
Table 204. Commodity chemicals and fuels manufactured from CO2.  
Table 205.CO2-derived Chemicals: Thermochemical Pathways.  
Table 206. Thermochemical Methods: CO2-derived Methanol.  
Table 207. CO2-derived Methanol Projects.  
Table 208. CO2-Derived Methanol: Economic and Market Analysis (Next 5-10 Years).  
Table 209. Electrochemical CO2 Reduction Technologies.  
Table 210. Comparison of RWGS and SOEC Co-electrolysis Routes.  
Table 211. Cost Comparison of CO2 Electrochemical Technologies.  
Table 212. Technology Readiness Level (TRL): CO2U Chemicals.  
Table 213. Companies in CO2-derived chemicals products.  
Table 214. CO2 utilization forecast in chemicals by end-use (million tonnes of CO2/year), 2025-2046 
Table 215. Global revenue forecast for CO2-derived chemicals by end-use (million US$), 2025-2046 
Table 216. Carbon capture technologies and projects in the cement sector 
Table 217. Prefabricated versus ready-mixed concrete markets .  
Table 218. CO2 utilization in concrete curing or mixing.  
Table 219. CO2 utilization business models in building materials.  
Table 220. Companies in CO2 derived building materials.  
Table 221. Market challenges for CO2 utilization in construction materials.  
Table 222. CO2 utilization forecast in building materials by end-use (million tonnes of CO2/year), 2025-2046.  
Table 223. Global revenue forecast for CO2-derived building materials by product (million US$), 2025-2046.  
Table 224. Enrichment Technology.  
Table 225. Food and Feed Production from CO2.  
Table 226. Companies in CO2 Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting.  
Table 227. CO2 utilization forecast in biological yield-boosting by end-use (million tonnes of CO2 per year), 2025-204 
Table 228. Global revenue forecast for CO2 use in biological yield-boosting by end-use (million US$), 2025-2046 
Table 229. Applications of CCS in oil and gas production.  
Table 230. CO2 utilization forecast in enhanced oil recovery (million tonnes of CO2/year), 2025-2046
Table 231. Global revenue forecast for CO2-enhanced oil recovery (billion US$), 2025-2046.  
Table 232. CO2 EOR/Storage Challenges.  
Table 233. Digital and IoT Applications in Carbon Utilization.  
Table 234. Blockchain Applications in Carbon Trading.  
Table 235. Carbon Utilization Strategies in Data Centers.  
Table 236. CCU Integration in Smart City Infrastructure.  
Table 237. CO2-derived Materials in 3D Printing.  
Table 238. CO2 Applications in Energy Storage.  
Table 239. CO2 Applications in Electronics Manufacturing.  
Table 240. Storage and utilization of CO2.  
Table 241. Mechanisms of subsurface CO2 trapping.  
Table 242. Global depleted reservoir storage projects.  
Table 243. Global CO2 ECBM storage projects.  
Table 244. CO2 EOR/storage projects.  
Table 245. Global storage sites-saline aquifer projects.  
Table 246. Global storage capacity estimates, by region.  
Table 247. MRV Technologies and Costs in CO2 Storage.  
Table 248. Carbon storage challenges.  
Table 249. Status of CO2 Storage Projects.  
Table 250. Types of CO2 -EOR designs.  
Table 251. CO2 capture with CO2 -EOR facilities.  
Table 252. CO2 -EOR companies.  
Table 253. Carbon Capture Storage Monitoring Technologies.  
Table 254. Storage Site Selection Criteria.  
Table 255. Phases of CO2 for transportation.  
Table 256. CO2 transportation methods and conditions.  
Table 257. Status of CO2 transportation methods in CCS projects.  
Table 258. CO2 pipelines Technical challenges.  
Table 259. Cost comparison of CO2 transportation methods  
Table 260. Components of Smart Pipeline Networks.  
Table 261. Components of CO2 Transportation Hubs.  
Table 262. CO2 Pipeline Safety Systems and Monitoring.  
Table 263. Emerging CO2 Transportation Technologies
Table 264. CO2 transport operators.  
Table 265. List of abbreviations.  
Table 266. Technology Readiness Level (TRL) Examples.  

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Carbon emissions by sector 
Figure 2. Overview of CCUS market 
Figure 3. CCUS business model 
Figure 4. Pathways for CO2 use
Figure 5. Regional capacity share 2025-2035.  
Figure 6. Global investment in carbon capture 2010-2024, millions USD. 
Figure 7. Carbon Capture, Utilization, & Storage (CCUS) Market Map.  
Figure 8. CCS deployment projects, historical and to 2035. 
Figure 9. Existing and planned CCS projects. 
Figure 10. CCUS Value Chain. 
Figure 11. Schematic of CCUS process. 
Figure 12. Pathways for CO2 utilization and removal.  
Figure 13. A pre-combustion capture system
Figure 14. Carbon dioxide utilization and removal cycle
Figure 15. Various pathways for CO2 utilization
Figure 16. Example of underground carbon dioxide storage
Figure 17. Transport of CCS technologies
Figure 18. Railroad car for liquid CO2 transport  
Figure 19. Estimated costs of capture of one metric ton of carbon dioxide (Co2) by sector 
Figure 20. Cost of CO2 transported at different flowrates  
Figure 21. Cost estimates for long-distance CO2 transport 
Figure 22. CO2 capture and separation technology
Figure 23. Global capacity of point-source carbon capture and storage facilities
Figure 24. Global carbon capture capacity by CO2 source, 2023
Figure 25. Global carbon capture capacity by CO2 source, 2045
Figure 26. SMR process flow diagram of steam methane reforming with carbon capture and storage (SMR-CCS)
Figure 27. Process flow diagram of autothermal reforming with a carbon capture and storage (ATR-CCS) plant
Figure 28. POX process flow diagram
Figure 29. Process flow diagram for a typical SE-SMR.  
Figure 30. Post-combustion carbon capture process.  
Figure 31. Post-combustion CO2 Capture in a Coal-Fired Power Plant 
Figure 32. Oxy-combustion carbon capture process.  
Figure 33. Process schematic of chemical looping.  
Figure 34. Liquid or supercritical CO2 carbon capture process.  
Figure 35. Pre-combustion carbon capture process 
Figure 36. Amine-based absorption technology 
Figure 37. Pressure swing absorption technology 
Figure 38. Membrane separation technology 
Figure 39. Liquid or supercritical CO2 (cryogenic) distillation 
Figure 40. Cryocap™ process 
Figure 41. Calix advanced calcination reactor 
Figure 42. LEILAC process
Figure 43. Fuel Cell CO2 Capture diagram
Figure 44. Microalgal carbon capture.  
Figure 45. Cost of carbon capture 
Figure 46. CO2 capture capacity to 2030, MtCO2.  
Figure 47. Capacity of large-scale CO2 capture projects, current and planned vs. the Net Zero Scenario, 2020-203 
Figure 48. CO2 captured from air using liquid and solid sorbent DAC plants, storage, and reuse.  
Figure 49. Global CO2 capture from biomass and DAC in the Net Zero Scenario.  
Figure 50. DAC technologies.  
Figure 51. Schematic of Climeworks DAC system.  
Figure 52. Climeworks’ first commercial direct air capture (DAC) plant, based in Hinwil, Switzerland.  
Figure 53. Flow diagram for solid sorbent DAC.  
Figure 54. Direct air capture based on high temperature liquid sorbent by Carbon Engineering.  
Figure 55. Schematic of costs of DAC technologies.  
Figure 56. DAC cost breakdown and comparison.  
Figure 57. Operating costs of generic liquid and solid-based DAC systems.  
Figure 58. Co2 utilization pathways and products.  
Figure 59. Conversion route for CO2-derived fuels and chemical intermediates.  
Figure 60. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived methane, methanol and diesel
Figure 61. CO2 feedstock for the production of e-methanol.  
Figure 62. Schematic illustration of (a) biophotosynthetic, (b) photothermal, (c) microbial-photoelectrochemical, (d)
photosynthetic and photocatalytic (PS/PC), (e) photoelectrochemical (PEC), and (f) photovoltaic plus electrochemical (PV+EC) approaches for CO2 c  
Figure 63. Audi synthetic fuels.  
Figure 64. Conversion of CO2 into chemicals and fuels via different pathways.  
Figure 65. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived polymeric materials  
Figure 66. Conversion pathway for CO2-derived building materials.  
Figure 67. Schematic of CCUS in cement sector.  
Figure 68. Carbon8 Systems’ ACT process.  
Figure 69. CO2 utilization in the Carbon Cure process.  
Figure 70. Algal cultivation in the desert.  
Figure 71. Example pathways for products from cyanobacteria.  
Figure 72. Typical Flow Diagram for CO2 EOR.  
Figure 73. Large CO2-EOR projects in different project stages by industry.  
Figure 74. Process Flow of Carbon Trading: Total Carbon Credits (CCs), amounting to CCB (MtCO2e) = (c) - EB, are issued to firm with CHG emissions below the allowance. These credits can be subsequently sold to firm with emissions exceeding the allowance. In the representation, the latter firm must purchase total credits equivalent to CCA (MtCO2e) = EA - (c). 
Figure 75. BiCRS Value Chain.  
Figure 76. Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) process.  
Figure 77. Capture of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere using bricks of calcium hydroxide.  
Figure 78. Carbon capture using mineral carbonation.  
Figure 79. SWOT analysis: enhanced weathering 
Figure 80. SWOT analysis: afforestation/reforestation.  
Figure 81. SWOT analysis: SCS.  
Figure 82. Schematic of biochar production.  
Figure 83. Biochars from different sources, and by pyrolyzation at different temperatures.  
Figure 84. Compressed biochar.  
Figure 85. Biochar production diagram.  
Figure 86. Pyrolysis process and by-products in agriculture.  
Figure 87. SWOT analysis: Biochar for CDR.  
Figure 88. SWOT analysis: Ocean-based CDR.  
Figure 89. CO2 non-conversion and conversion technology, advantages and disadvantages
Figure 90. Applications for CO2.  
Figure 91. Cost to capture one metric ton of carbon, by sector.  
Figure 92. Life cycle of CO2-derived products and services.  
Figure 93. Co2 utilization pathways and products.  
Figure 94. Plasma technology configurations and their advantages and disadvantages for CO2 conversion.  
Figure 95. Electrochemical CO2 reduction products.  
Figure 96. LanzaTech gas-fermentation process.  
Figure 97. Schematic of biological CO2 conversion into e-fuels.  
Figure 98. Econic catalyst systems.  
Figure 99. Mineral carbonation processes.  
Figure 100. Conversion route for CO2-derived fuels and chemical intermediates.  
Figure 101. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived methane, methanol and diesel.  
Figure 102. SWOT analysis: e-fuels.  
Figure 103. CO2 feedstock for the production of e-methanol.  
Figure 104. Schematic illustration of (a) biophotosynthetic, (b) photothermal, (c) microbial-photoelectrochemical, (d) photosynthetic and photocatalytic (PS/PC), (e) photoelectrochemical (PEC), and (f) photovoltaic plus electrochemical (PV+EC) approaches for CO2  
Figure 105. Audi synthetic fuels 
Figure 106. Conversion of CO2 into chemicals and fuels via different pathways.  
Figure 107. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived polymeric materials  
Figure 108. Conversion pathway for CO2-derived building materials.  
Figure 109. Schematic of CCUS in cement sector.  
Figure 110. Carbon8 Systems’ ACT process.  
Figure 111. CO2 utilization in the Carbon Cure process.  
Figure 112. Algal cultivation in the desert.  
Figure 113. Example pathways for products from cyanobacteria.  
Figure 114. Typical Flow Diagram for CO2 EOR.  
Figure 115. Large CO2-EOR projects in different project stages by industry.  
Figure 116. Carbon mineralization pathways.  
Figure 117. CO2 Storage Overview - Site Options  
Figure 118. CO2 injection into a saline formation while producing brine for beneficial use 
Figure 119. Subsurface storage cost estimation 
Figure 120. Air Products production process
Figure 121. ALGIECEL PhotoBioReactor.  
Figure 122. Schematic of carbon capture solar project.  
Figure 123. Aspiring Materials method.  
Figure 124. Aymium’s Biocarbon production.  
Figure 125. Capchar prototype pyrolysis kiln.  
Figure 126. Carbonminer technology.  
Figure 127. Carbon Blade system 
Figure 128. CarbonCure Technology.  
Figure 129. Direct Air Capture Process.  
Figure 130. CRI process.  
Figure 131. PCCSD Project in China.  
Figure 132. Orca facility.  
Figure 133. Process flow scheme of Compact Carbon Capture Plant.  
Figure 134. Colyser process.  
Figure 135. ECFORM electrolysis reactor schematic.  
Figure 136. Dioxycle modular electrolyzer.  
Figure 137. Fuel Cell Carbon Capture.  
Figure 138. Topsoe's SynCORTM autothermal reforming technology.  
Figure 139. Heirloom DAC facilities.  
Figure 140. Carbon Capture balloon.  
Figure 141. Holy Grail DAC system.  
Figure 142. INERATEC unit.  
Figure 143. Infinitree swing method.  
Figure 144. Audi/Krajete unit 
Figure 145. Made of Air's HexChar panels.  
Figure 146. Mosaic Materials MOFs.  
Figure 147. Neustark modular plant.  
Figure 148. OCOchem’s Carbon Flux Electrolyzer.  
Figure 149. ZerCaL™ process.  
Figure 150. CCS project at Arthit offshore gas field.  
Figure 151. RepAir technology 
Figure 152. Aker (SLB Capturi) carbon capture system.  
Figure 153. Soletair Power unit
Figure 154. Sunfire process for Blue Crude production 
Figure 155. CALF-20 has been integrated into a rotating CO2 capture machine (left), which operates inside a CO2 plant module 
Figure 156. Takavator 
Figure 157. O12 Reactor 
Figure 158. Sunglasses with lenses made from CO2-derived materials 
Figure 159. CO2 made car part 
Figure 160. Molecular sieving membrane

• 3R-BioPhosphate
• Adaptavate
• Again
• Aeroborn B.V.
• Aether Diamonds
• AirCapture LLC
• Aircela Inc
• Airco Process Technology
• Air Company
• Air Liquide S.A.
• Air Products and Chemicals Inc.
• Air Protein
• Airex Energy
• AirHive
• Airovation Technologies
• Algal Bio Co. Ltd.
• Algenol
• Algiecel ApS
• Andes Ag Inc.
• Aqualung Carbon Capture
• Arborea
• Arca
• Arkeon Biotechnologies
• Asahi Kasei
• AspiraDAC Pty Ltd.
• Aspiring Materials
• Atoco
• Avantium N.V.
• Avnos Inc.
• Aymium
• Axens SA
• Azolla
• Barton Blakeley Technologies Ltd.
• BASF Group
• BC Biocarbon
• BP PLC
• Biochar Now
• Bio-Logica Carbon Ltd.
• Biomacon GmbH
• Biosorra
• Blue Planet Systems Corporation
• Blusink Ltd.
• Boomitra
• Brineworks
• BluSky Inc.
• Breathe Applied Sciences
• Bright Renewables
• Brilliant Planet Systems
• bse Methanol GmbH
• C-Capture
• C4X Technologies Inc.
• C2CNT LLC
• Calcin8 Technologies Limited
• Cambridge Carbon Capture Ltd.
• Capchar Ltd.
• Captura Corporation
• Captur Tower
• Capture6
• Carba
• CarbiCrete
• Carbfix
• Carboclave
• Carbo Culture
• Carbofex Oy
• Carbominer
• Carbonade
• Carbonaide Oy
• Carbonaught Pty Ltd.
• CarbonFree
• Carbonova
• CarbonScape Ltd.
• Carbon8 Systems
• Carbon Blade
• Carbon Blue
• CarbonBuilt
• Carbon CANTONNE
• Carbon Capture Inc.
• Carbon Capture Machine UK
• Carbon Centric AS
• Carbon Clean Solutions Limited
• Carbon Collect Limited
• CarbonCure Technologies Inc.
• Carbon Geocapture Corp
• Carbon Engineering Ltd.
• Carbon Infinity Limited
• Carbon Limit
• Carbon Neutral Fuels
• Carbon Recycling International
• Carbon Re
• Carbon Reform Inc.
• Carbon Ridge Inc.
• Carbon Sink LLC
• CarbonStar Systems
• Carbon Upcycling Technologies
• Carbonfree Chemicals
• CarbonMeta Research Ltd
• CarbonOrO Products B.V.
• CarbonQuest
• Carbon-Zero US LLC
• Carbyon BV
• Cella Mineral Storage
• Cemvita Factory Inc.
• CERT Systems Inc.
• CFOAM Limited
• Charm Industrial
• Chevron Corporation
• Chiyoda Corporation
• China Energy Investment Corporation
• Citroniq Chemicals LLC
• Clairity Technology
• Climeworks
• CNF Biofuel AS
• CO2 Capsol
• CO280
• CO2Rail Company
• CO2CirculAir B.V.
• Compact Carbon Capture AS
• Concrete4Change
• Cool Planet Energy Systems
• CORMETECH
• Coval Energy B.V.
• Covestro AG
• C-Quester Inc.
• C-Questra
• Cquestr8 Limited
• CREW Carbon
• CyanoCapture
• D-CRBN
• Decarbontek LLC
• Deep Branch Biotechnology
• Deep Sky
• Denbury Inc.
• Dimensional Energy
• Dioxide Materials
• Dioxycle
• Drax
• 8Rivers
• Earth RepAIR
• Ebb Carbon
• Ecocera
• ecoLocked GmbH
• EDAC Labs
• Eion Carbon
• Econic Technologies Ltd
• EcoClosure LLC
• Electrochaea GmbH
• Emerging Fuels Technology
• Empower Materials Inc.
• Enerkem Inc.
• enaDyne GmbH
• Entropy Inc.
• E-Quester
• Equatic
• Equinor ASA
• Evonik Industries AG
• Exomad Green
• ExxonMobil
• Fairbrics
• Fervo Energy
• Fluor Corporation
• Fortera Corporation
• Framergy Inc.
• Freres Biochar
• FuelCell Energy Inc.
• Funga
• GE Gas Power
• Giammarco Vetrocoke
• GigaBlue
• Giner Inc.
• Global Algae Innovations
• Global Thermostat LLC
• Graphyte
• Grassroots Biochar AB
• Graviky Labs
• GreenCap Solutions AS
• Greenlyte Carbon Technologies
• Greeniron H2 AB
• Green Sequest
• Gulf Coast Sequestration
• greenSand
• Hago Energetics
• Haldor Topsoe
• Heimdal CCU
• Heirloom Carbon Technologies
• High Hopes Labs
• Holcim Group
• Holocene
• Holy Grail Inc.
• Honeywell
• Oy Hydrocell Ltd.
• Hyvegeo
• 1point8
• IHI Corporation
• Immaterial Ltd
• Ineratec GmbH
• Infinitree LLC
• Innovator Energy
• InnoSepra LLC
• Inplanet GmbH
• InterEarth
• ION Clean Energy Inc.
• Japan CCS Co. Ltd.
• Jupiter Oxygen Corporation
• Kawasaki Heavy Industries Ltd.
• KC8 Capture Technologies
• Krajete GmbH
• LanzaJet Inc.
• Lanzatech
• Lectrolyst LLC
• Levidian Nanosystems
• Limenet
• The Linde Group
• Liquid Wind AB
• Lithos Carbon
• Living Carbon
• Loam Bio
• Low Carbon Korea
• Low Carbon Materials
• Made of Air GmbH
• Mango Materials Inc.
• Mantel Capture
• Mars Materials
• Mattershift
• MCI Carbon
• Mercurius Biorefining
• Minera Systems
• Mineral Carbonation International Carbon
• Mission Zero Technologies
• Mitsui Chemicals Inc.
• Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd.
• MOFWORX
• Molten Industries Inc.
• Mosaic Materials Inc.
• Mote
• Myno Carbon
• Nanyang Zhongju Tianguan Low Carbon Technology Company
• NEG8 Carbon
• NeoCarbon
• Net Power LLC
• NetZero
• Neustark AG
• Nevel AB
• Newlight Technologies LLC
• New Sky Energy
• Njord Carbon
• Norsk e-Fuel AS
• Novocarbo GmbH
• novoMOF AG