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Terraforming Mars. Edition No. 1. Astrobiology Perspectives on Life in the Universe

  • Book

  • 592 Pages
  • December 2021
  • John Wiley and Sons Ltd
  • ID: 5841071
TERRAFORMING MARS

This book provides a thorough scientific review of how Mars might eventually be colonized, industrialized, and transformed into a world better suited to human habitation.

The idea of terraforming Mars has, in recent times, become a topic of intense scientific interest and great public debate. Stimulated in part by the contemporary imperative to begin geoengineering Earth, as a means to combat global climate change, the terraforming of Mars will work to make its presently hostile environment more suitable to life - especially human life. Geoengineering and terraforming, at their core, have the same goal - that is to enhance (or revive) the ability of a specific environment to support human life, society, and industry. The chapters in this text, written by experts in their respective fields, are accordingly in resonance with the important, and ongoing discussions concerning the human stewardship of global climate systems. In this sense, the text is both timely and relevant and will cover issues relating to topics that will only grow in their relevance in future decades. The notion of terraforming Mars is not a new one, as such, and it has long played as the background narrative in many science fiction novels. This book, however, deals exclusively with what is physically possible, and what might conceivably be put into actual practice within the next several human generations.

Audience

Researchers in planetary science, astronomy, astrobiology, space engineering, architecture, ethics, as well as members of the space industry.

Table of Contents

Preface xv

Part 1: Introduction 1

1 Terraforming and Colonizing Mars 3

Giancarlo Genta

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Earth: A Terraformed Planet 4

1.3 Planetary Environments 6

1.4 Terraforming Mars 10

1.5 The Role of Solar Wind 15

1.6 Ethical Aspects 16

1.7 Venus, Moon, Titan… 19

References 21

Part 2: Engineering Mars 23

2 Terraforming Worlds: Humans Playing Games of Gods 25

Nilo Serpa and Richard Cathcart

Early Mars 26

Oceans Here and There 28

The Mars We are Creating Here 30

Mars: An Arena of Delusions? 34

References 35

3 Mars, A Stepping-Stone World, Macro-Engineered 37

Richard B. Cathcart

3.1 Introduction 37

3.2 Mars-Crust as Kinetic Architecture 38

3.3 A Crust-Infrastructure Mixture 39

3.4 Infrastructure and Life-Styles 40

3.5 Atmosphere Enhancements for Mars 44

3.6 Between Then and Now 46

Acknowledgments 48

References 48

4 Efficient Martian Settlement with the Mars Terraformer Transfer (MATT) and the Omaha Trail 51

Gary Stewart

4.1 Introduction 51

4.2 Construction Efficiencies of MATT’s Small-Scale Terraformation 52

4.2.1 Impact Terraformation for Settlement 52

4.2.2 Impactor Redirection with DE-STARLITE 55

4.2.3 Subaqueous Hab Network at Omaha Crater 57

4.3 Provisioning Efficiencies of the Omaha Trail 61

4.3.1 Deimos Dock 63

4.3.2 Mars Lift 64

4.3.3 Arestation 66

4.3.4 Deimos Rail Launcher (DRL) 66

4.4 Cosmic Ray Protection: From Omaha Trail to Omaha Shield 67

4.5 Conclusion 68

References 69

5 Mars Colonization: Beyond Getting There 73

Igor Levchenko, Shuyan Xu, Stéphane Mazouffre, Michael Keidar and Kateryna Bazaka

5.1 Mars Colonization - Do We Need it? 73

5.2 Legal Considerations 78

5.2.1 Do Earth Laws Apply To Mars Colonists? 78

5.2.2 Sovereignty 79

5.2.3 Human Rights 80

5.2.4 Abortion 82

5.3 Ethical Considerations 83

5.3.1 General 83

5.3.2 Human Reproduction - Ethical Considerations 84

5.3.3 Social Isolation and No Privacy - Rolled into One 85

5.3.4 Advocacy for Mars - is it Ethical at All to Colonize it? 86

5.4 Consideration of Resources 88

5.5 Quo Vadis, the Only Civilization We Know? 89

5.6 Afterword. Where are We Three Years Later? 89

5.6.1 Current Programs and Their Status - in Brief 89

5.6.2 Any News About Mars? 90

5.6.3 Tasks and Challenges 90

Acknowledgements 92

References 92

Part 3: Ethical Exploration 99

6 The Ethics of Terraforming: A Critical Survey of Six Arguments 101

Ian Stoner

6.1 Introduction 101

6.2 Audience and Method 102

6.3 Preservationist Arguments 103

6.3.1 We Should Preserve Mars’s Value as a Unique Object of Scientific Interest 103

6.3.2 We Should Preserve the Integrity of the Martian Wilderness 104

6.3.3 We Should Avoid Expressing Colonialist Vices 106

6.4 Interventionist Arguments 108

6.4.1 We Should Fulfill our Inborn Nature as Pioneers 108

6.4.2 We Should Increase Our Species’ Chance of Long-Term Survival 109

6.4.3 We Should Rehabilitate Mars for Martians 112

6.5 Conclusion 113

Acknowledgments 114

References 114

7 Homo Reductio Eco-Nihilism and Human Colonization of Other Worlds 117

Kelly Smith

7.1 Introduction 117

7.2 Implicit Assumptions 119

7.3 Conclusion 121

Acknowledgements 122

References 122

8 Ethical, Political and Legal Challenges Relating to Colonizing and Terraforming Mars 123

Konrad Szocik

8.1 Introduction 123

8.2 Ethical Issues in Colonizing and Terraforming Mars 124

8.3 Ethics of Human Enhancement for Space 125

8.4 Environmental Ethics in Space 125

8.5 Political Issues in Colonizing and Terraforming Mars 127

8.6 Legal Issues in Colonizing and Terraforming Mars 128

8.7 Sexual and Reproductive Laws in a Mars Colony 129

8.8 Migration Law in Space 130

8.9 Why Terraforming Mars May Be Necessary from Ethical, Political and Legal Perspectives 132

8.10 Conclusions 133

References 133

Part 4: Indigenous Life on Mars 135

9 Life on Mars: Past, Present, and Future 137

Martin Beech and Mark Comte

9.1 A Very Brief Historical Introduction 137

9.2 Indigenous Life: Past and Present 141

9.2.1 Beginnings 145

9.2.2 The Viking Experiments 148

9.2.3 Martian Meteorites 149

9.2.4 In Plain Sight 151

9.3 Seeded Life: The Future 154

9.4 Per Aspera ad Astra 156

References 157

10 Terraforming on Early Mars? 161

M. Polgári, I. Gyollai and Sz. Bérczi

10.1 Introduction 162

10.1.1 Aspects of Biogenicity 163

10.1.2 Methodology 163

10.1.3 Multihierarchical System Analyses 164

10.2 Outline of Section 10.2 167

10.2.1 Review of Research on Martian Life 167

10.2.2 Biosignatures in Martian Meteorites Based on Mineralogical and Textural Investigation 169

10.2.3 Biosignatures in Chondritic Meteorites 169

10.2.3.1 Interpretations 175

10.2.3.2 Clay Formation 182

10.2.3.3 Interpretation No 1 183

10.2.3.4 Interpretation No 2 (Preferred) 183

10.2.4 Terrestrial Analogues of Biosignatures 186

10.2.5 Implications to Terraforming of Ancient Life on Mars on the Basis of Terrestrial and Meteoritic Analogues 199

10.3 Novel Interpretation of the Formation Process Based on Mineral Assemblages 265

10.3.1 Martian Meteorites 265

10.3.2 Interpretation of Mineral Assemblages on Mars 265

10.3.3 Novel Interpretation of Mineral Dataset of Exploration of Curiosity in Gale Crater 267

10.4 Conclusion 268

Acknowledgment 270

References 270

Part 5: Living on Mars 281

11 Omaha Field - A Magnetostatic Cosmic Radiation Shield for a Crewed Mars Facility 283

Gary Stewart

11.1 Introduction 283

11.2 Methods 284

11.2.1 Software 284

11.2.2 Testing 284

11.3 Design 284

11.3.1 Crater 284

11.3.2 Current 285

11.3.3 Circuits 287

11.4 Results 288

11.4.1 Shielding Against 500 MeV Protons 288

11.4.2 Shielding Against 1 GeV Protons 289

11.4.3 Shielding Effectiveness in the Mars Environment 290

11.5 Discussion 291

11.5.1 Electrostatics 291

11.5.2 Refrigeration 291

11.5.3 Self-Shielding Solenoids 292

11.5.4 Alternate Self-Shielding and Source-Shielding 293

11.5.5 Safety in Transit Across Crater Rim 294

11.5.6 Safety in Spacecraft Launch and Landing 295

References 295

12 Mars Future Settlements: Active Radiation Shielding and Design Criteria About Habitats and Infrastructures 297

Marco Peroni

12.1 Introduction 297

12.2 The Problem of Cosmic Radiations 298

12.3 The Protection System with Artificial Magnetic Fields 299

12.4 Details of Our Proposal 302

12.5 Further Developments 309

12.6 Modular Settlement on Mars 309

Acknowledgments 312

References 312

13 Crop Growth and Viability of Seeds on Mars and Moon Soil Simulants 313

G.W.W. Wamelink, J.Y. Frissel, W.H.J. Krijnen and M.R. Verwoert

13.1 Introduction 313

13.2 Materials and Methods 314

13.2.1 Regoliths 314

13.2.2 Species Selection 315

13.2.3 Organic Matter and Bacteria 316

13.2.4 Experimental Design 317

13.2.5 Harvest and Measurements 317

13.3 Results 318

13.3.1 Fruit Setting and Biomass 318

13.3.2 Seed Weight and Germination 318

13.4 Discussion 319

13.5 Outlook Issues for the Future 320

Acknowledgements 322

References 322

Appendix 324

14 The First Settlement of Mars 331

Chris Hajduk

14.1 Introduction 331

14.2 Colony Location 332

14.3 Colony Timeline 333

14.3.1 Setup Phase 333

14.3.2 Investment Phase 334

14.3.3 Self-Sufficiency 335

14.4 Colony Design 335

14.5 The Basics - Power, Air, Water, Food 336

14.5.1 Food 336

14.5.2 Water 339

14.5.3 Air 341

14.5.4 Power 342

14.6 The Material World 343

14.6.1 Metals 344

14.6.2 Plastics 344

14.6.3 Ceramics and Composites 344

14.6.4 Mining 344

14.7 Exports, Economics, Investment and Cash Flow 346

14.7.1 Interplanetary Real Estate 346

14.7.2 Intellectual Property Export 347

14.7.3 Research Tourism 347

14.7.4 Investment and Cash Flow 347

14.8 Politics - A Socialist’s World 349

14.9 Conclusion and Further Thoughts 349

References 349

Part 6: In Situ Resources 353

15 Vulcanism on Mars 355

Ian M. Coulson

15.1 Introduction 355

15.2 Martian Geology 356

15.2.1 Mars: Creation and Thermal Evolution 357

15.2.2 The Martian Crust 358

15.3 Vulcanism 358

15.3.1 Types of Volcanoes 359

15.3.1.1 Earth 359

15.3.1.2 Mars 361

15.3.2 Recognition of Other Styles of Vulcanism 363

15.3.3 Martian Meteorites 364

15.3.4 Is Mars Still Volcanically Active? 366

References 367

16 Potential Impact-Related Mineral Resources on Mars 371

Jake R. Crandall, Justin Filiberto and Sally L. Potter-McIntyre

Introduction 371

Terrestrial Ore Deposit Types Associated with Impact Craters 374

Progenetic Deposits 374

Syngenetic Deposits 376

Epigenetic Deposits 377

Martian Target Craters 377

Ritchey Crater 377

Contents xi

Gale Crater 378

Gusev Crater 380

Conclusions 381

References 382

17 Red Gold - Practical Methods for Precious-Metal Survey, Open-Pit Mining, and Open-Air Refining on Mars 389

Gary Stewart

17.1 Introduction 389

17.2 Martian Precious-Metal Ore from Asteroids 390

17.3 Martian Precious-Metal Survey and Physical Assay 392

17.4 “Mars Base Alpha” - A Red Gold Mining Camp 394

17.5 Semi-Autonomous Open-Pit Mining 396

17.6 Comminution and Separation of Meteorite Ore 396

17.7 Extracting Metals with Induction/Microwave Smelter 397

17.8 Refining with Hydrometallurgical Recovery and the Miller Process 398

17.9 Separating Precious Metals with Saltwater Electrolysis 400

17.10 Kovar Foundry 400

17.11 Maximizing ISRU, Minimizing Mass and Complexity 402

17.12 Scale-Up and Scale-Out 405

17.13 Conclusion, with Observations and Recommendations 407

References 409

Part 7: Terraforming Mars 415

18 Terraforming Mars: A Cabinet of Curiosities 417

Martin Beech

18.1 Introduction and Overview 417

18.2 Planet Mars: A Brief Observational History and Overview 425

18.3 The Beginnings of Change 428

18.4 The Foundations 431

18.5 First Blush 438

18.6 Digging In 441

18.7 (re)Building the Martian Atmosphere 446

18.8 Magnetic Shielding 454

18.9 Heating the Ground 457

18.10 A Question of Time 458

18.11 Conclusions 460

References 461

19 Terraforming Mars Rapidly Using Today’s Level of Technology 467

Mark Culaj

19.1 Introduction 467

19.2 Solar Wind 468

19.2.1 Solar Wind Abundances 469

19.2.2 Magnetic Lens 469

19.3 Conclusions 475

Acknowledgments 477

References 477

20 System Engineering Analysis of Terraforming Mars with an Emphasis on Resource Importation Technology 479

Brandon Wong

20.1 Summary 479

20.2 Introduction 480

20.3 Key Problem 482

20.4 Key Stakeholders 482

20.5 Goals 483

20.6 Macro Level Alternatives 483

20.6.1 Terraforming 483

20.6.2 Paraterraforming 484

20.6.3 Bioforming 485

20.7 Macro-Level Trade Study 486

20.8 Macro-Level Conclusions 487

20.8.1 Concept of Operations 487

20.8.2 High-Level Requirements 487

20.8.3 Requirements Decomposition 487

20.8.4 Macro High-Level Design 488

20.9 Terraforming Efforts System - Detailed Requirements 489

20.10 Space Transportation System 492

20.11 Importing Resources Subsystem 492

20.11.1 Resources Needed 492

20.11.2 Resource Locations 493

20.11.3 Subsystem Needs 494

20.11.3.1 Subsystem Goals for Importing Resources Subsystem 494

20.11.3.2 Detailed Requirements for Importing Resources Subsystem 494

20.11.3.3 Alternatives for the Importing Resources Subsystem 495

20.11.3.4 Importing Resources Trade Study 504

20.11.3.5 Findings 506

20.11.3.6 Importing Resources Subsystem Design 506

20.12 Risks 507

20.12.1 Macro-Level Risks 507

20.12.2 Importing Resources Subsystem Risks 509

20.13 Lean Strategies 511

20.14 Ethical Considerations 512

20.15 Overall Conclusions 513

20.15.1 Proposed Implementation Plan 513

20.16 Acknowledgements 514

20.17 Appendix 514

20.17.1 Requirements Flowdown to System Implementation 514

References 530

21 The Potential of Pioneer Lichens in Terraforming Mars 533

Richard A. Armstrong

21.1 Introduction 533

21.2 Potential Role of Lichens in Terraformation 534

21.3 Exploiting Indigenous Lichens 536

21.4 Exploiting Lichen Symbionts on Mars 538

21.5 Inoculating Lichen Symbionts from Earth Cultures 540

21.6 Transplanting Terrestrial Lichens to Mars 541

21.7 Conclusions 546

References 547

Index 555

Authors

Martin Beech University of Regina and Campion College, Saskatchewan, Canada. Joseph Seckbach The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel. Richard Gordon Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA.