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Electrokinetic Remediation for Environmental Security and Sustainability. Edition No. 1

  • Book

  • 720 Pages
  • April 2021
  • John Wiley and Sons Ltd
  • ID: 5842363
Electrokinetic Remediation for Environmental Security and Sustainability

Explore this comprehensive reference on the remediation of contaminated substrates, filled with cutting-edge research and practical case studies

Electrokinetic Remediation for Environmental Security and Sustainability delivers a thorough review of electrokinetic remediation (EKR) for the treatment of inorganic and organic contaminants in contaminated substrates. The book highlights recent progress and developments in EKR in the areas of resource recovery, the removal of pollutants, and environmental remediation. It also discusses the use of EKR in conjunction with nanotechnology and phytoremediation.

Throughout the book, case studies are presented that involve the field implementation of EKR technologies. The book also includes discussions of enhanced electrokinetic remediation of dredged co-contaminated sediments, solar-powered bioelectrokinetics for the mitigation of contaminated agricultural soil, advanced electro-fenton for remediation of organics, electrokinetic remediation for PPCPs in contaminated substrates, and the electrokinetic remediation of agrochemicals such as organochlorine compounds. Other topics include:- A thorough introduction to the modelling of electrokinetic remediation- An exploration of the electrokinetic recovery of tungsten and removal of arsenic from mining secondary resources- An analysis of pharmaceutically active compounds in wastewater treatment plants with a discussion of electrochemical advanced oxidation as an on-site treatment- A review of rare earth elements, including general concepts and recovery techniques, like electrodialytic extraction- A treatment of hydrocarbon-contaminated soil in cold climate conditions

Perfect for environmental engineers and scientists, geologists, chemical engineers, biochemical engineers, and scientists working with green technology, Electrokinetic Remediation for Environmental Security and Sustainability will also earn a place in the libraries of academic and industry researchers, engineers, regulators, and policy makers with an interest in the remediation of contaminated natural resources.

Table of Contents

Preface xix

Contributors xxiii

1 An Overview of the Modeling of Electrokinetic Remediation 1
Maria Villen-Guzman, Maria del Mar Cerrillo-Gonzalez, Juan Manuel Paz-Garcia, and Jose Miguel Rodriguez-Maroto

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Reactive Transport 3

1.2.1 One-Dimensional Electromigration Model 3

1.2.2 One-Dimensional Electromigration and Electroosmosis Model 7

1.2.3 One-Dimensional Electrodialytic Model 9

1.2.4 One-Dimensional Electroremediation Model Using Nernst-Planck-Poisson 16

1.3 Chemical Equilibrium 18

1.4 Models for the Future 24

1.4.1 Combining Chemical Equilibrium and Chemical Reaction Kinetics 24

1.4.2 Multiscale Models 26

1.4.3 Two- and Three-Dimensional Models 29

1.4.4 Multiphysics Modeling 29

Acknowledgments 30

References 30

2 Basic Electrochemistry Tools in Environmental Applications 35
Chanchal Kumar Mitra and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad

2.1 Introduction 35

2.1.1 Electrochemical Half-Cells 37

2.1.2 Electrode Potential 38

2.1.3 Electrical Double Layer 40

2.1.4 Electrochemical Processes 41

2.1.4.1 Polarization (Overvoltage) 41

2.1.4.2 Slow Chemical Reactions 42

2.2 Basic Bioelectrochemistry and Applications 44

2.3 Industrial Electrochemistry and the Environment 44

2.3.1 Isolation and Purification of Important Metals 44

2.3.2 Production of Important Chemical Intermediates by Electrochemistry 45

2.4 Electrokinetic Phenomena 45

2.4.1 Electroosmosis in Bioremediation 46

2.5 Electrophoresis and Its Application in Bioremediation 47

2.6 Biosensors in Environmental Monitoring 48

2.6.1 What Are Biosensors? 48

2.6.2 Biosensors as Environmental Monitors 49

2.7 Electrochemical Systems as Energy Sources 52

2.8 Conclusions 55

References 55

3 Combined Use of Remediation Technologies with Electrokinetics 61
Helena I. Gomes and Erika B. Bustos

3.1 Introduction 61

3.2 Biological Processes 62

3.2.1 Electrobioremediation 62

3.2.2 Electro-Phytoremediation 64

3.3 Permeable Reactive Barriers 67

3.4 Advanced Oxidation Processes 67

3.4.1 Electrokinetics-Enhanced In Situ Chemical Oxidation (EK-ISCO) 67

3.4.2 Electro-Fenton 70

3.5 In Situ Chemical Reduction (ISCR) 71

3.6 Challenges for Upscaling 71

3.7 Concluding Remarks 73

References 73

4 The Electrokinetic Recovery of Tungsten and Removal of Arsenic from Mining Secondary Resources: The Case of the Panasqueira Mine 85
Joana Almeida, Paulina Faria, António Santos Silva, Eduardo P. Mateus, and Alexandra B. Ribeiro

4.1 Introduction 85

4.2 Tungsten Mining Resources: The Panasqueira Mine 86

4.2.1 The Development of the Industry 86

4.2.2 Ore Extraction Processes 88

4.2.3 Potential Risks 88

4.3 The Circular Economy of Tungsten Mining Waste 89

4.3.1 Panasqueira Old Slimes vs. Current Slimes 89

4.3.2 Tungsten Recovery 90

4.3.3 Building Material-Related Applications 92

4.4 Social, Economic, and Environmental Impacts 93

4.5 Final Remarks 94

Acknowledgments 94

References 95

5 Electrokinetic Remediation of Dredged Contaminated Sediments 99
Kristine B. Pedersen, Ahmed Benamar, Mohamed T. Ammami, Florence Portet-Koltalo, and Gunvor M. Kirkelund

5.1 Introduction 99

5.2 EKR Removal of Pollutants from Harbor Sediments 101

5.2.1 Pollutants and Removal Efficiencies 101

5.2.1.1 Metals 102

5.2.1.2 Organic Pollutants and Organometallic Pollutants 104

5.2.2 Influence of Experimental Settings and Sediment Properties on the Efficiency of EKR 105

5.2.2.1 Enhancement of EKR - Changes in Design 106

5.2.2.2 Enhancement of EKR - Chemical Agents and Surfactants 106

5.2.2.3 Sediment Characteristics 108

5.3 Case Studies of Enhancement Techniques 111

5.4 Evaluation of the Best Available EKR Practice 120

5.4.1 Energy Consumption 120

5.4.2 Environmental Impacts 122

5.5 Scaling Up EKR for Remediation of Polluted Harbor Sediments 123

5.5.1 Results and Comments 125

5.6 Future Perspectives 129

References 131

6 Pharmaceutically Active Compounds in Wastewater Treatment Plants: Electrochemical Advanced Oxidation as Onsite Treatment 141
Ana Rita Ferreira, Paula Guedes, Eduardo P. Mateus, Alexandra B. Ribeiro, and Nazaré Couto

6.1 Introduction 141

6.1.1 Emerging Organic Contaminants 141

6.1.2 Occurrence and Fate of EOCs 141

6.1.2.1 EOCs in WWTPs 143

6.1.3 Water Challenges 144

6.1.4 Technologies forWastewater Treatment - Electrochemical Process 146

6.2 Electrochemical Reactor for EOC Removal in WWTPs 148

6.2.1 Experimental Design 148

6.2.1.1 Analytical Methodology 148

6.2.2 Electrokinetic Reactor Operating in a Continuous Vertical Flow Mode 150

6.3 Conclusions 153

Acknowledgments 153

References 153

7 Rare Earth Elements: Overview, General Concepts, and Recovery Techniques, Including Electrodialytic Extraction 159
Nazaré Couto, Ana Rita Ferreira, Vanda Lopes, Stephen Peters, Sibel Pamukcu, and Alexandra B. Ribeiro

7.1 Introduction 159

7.1.1 Rare Earth Elements: Characterization, Applications, and Geo-Dependence 159

7.1.2 REE Mining and Secondary Sources 162

7.1.3 REE Extraction and Recovery from Secondary Resources 163

7.2 Case Study 164

7.3 Conclusions 166

Acknowledgments 167

References 167

8 Hydrocarbon-Contaminated Soil in Cold Climate Conditions: Electrokinetic-Bioremediation Technology as a Remediation Strategy 173
Ana Rita Ferreira, Paula Guedes, Eduardo P. Mateus, Pernille Erland Jensen, Alexandra B. Ribeiro, and Nazaré Couto

8.1 Introduction 173

8.1.1 Hydrocarbon Contamination 173

8.1.2 Oil Spills in Arctic Environments 174

8.1.3 Remediation of Petroleum-Contaminated Soil 175

8.1.3.1 Electrokinetic Remediation (EKR) 176

8.2 Case Study 177

8.2.1 Description of the Site 177

8.2.2 Soil Sampling 178

8.2.3 Electrokinetic Remediation (EKR) Experiments 178

8.2.4 Analytical Procedures 179

8.2.4.1 Soil Characterization 179

8.3 Determination of Metals and Phosphorus 180

8.3.1 Results and Discussion 180

8.3.1.1 Soil Characteristics 180

8.3.1.2 EKR Experiments 182

8.4 Conclusions 186

Acknowledgments 186

References 186

9 Electrochemical Migration of Oil and Oil Products in Soil 191
V.A. Korolev and D.S. Nesterov

9.1 Introduction 191

9.2 Specific Nature of Soils Polluted by Oil and Its Products 192

9.3 Influence of Mineral Composition 193

9.4 Influence of Soil Dispersiveness 195

9.5 Influence of Physical Soil Properties 198

9.6 Influence of Physico-Chemical Soil Properties 201

9.7 Influence of the InitialWater/Oil Ratio in a Soil 203

9.8 Influence of the Oil Aging Process 207

9.9 Influence of Oil Composition 211

9.10 Conclusions 220

Acknowledgments 222

References 222

10 Nanostructured TiO2-Based Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER) Electrocatalysts: A Preliminary Feasibility Study in Electrodialytic Remediation with Hydrogen Recovery 227
Antonio Rubino, Joana Almeida, Catia Magro, Pier G. Schiavi, Paula Guedes, Nazare Couto, Eduardo P. Mateus, Pietro Altimari, Maria L. Astolfi, Robertino Zanoni, Alexandra B. Ribeiro, and Francesca Pagnanelli

10.1 Introduction 227

10.1.1 Electrokinetic Technologies: Electrodialytic Ex Situ Remediation 228

10.1.2 Nanostructured TiO2 Electrocatalysts Synthesized Through Electrochemical Methods 230

10.2 Case Study 231

10.2.1 Aim and Scope 231

10.2.2 Experimental 232

10.2.2.1 TiO2 Based Electrocatalyst Synthesis and Characterization 232

10.2.2.2 ED Experiments 233

10.2.3 Discussion 235

10.2.3.1 Blank Tests: Electrocatalysts Effectiveness toward HER 235

10.2.3.2 ED Remediation for Sustainable CRMs Recovery 237

10.3 Final Considerations 243

Acknowledgments 244

References 244

11 Hydrogen Recovery in Electrodialytic-Based Technologies Applied to Environmental Contaminated Matrices 251
Cátia Magro, Joana Almeida, Juan Manuel Paz-Garcia, Eduardo P. Mateus, and Alexandra B. Ribeiro

11.1 Scope 251

11.2 Technology Concept 253

11.2.1 Potential Secondary Resources 253

11.2.2 Electrodialytic Reactor 254

11.2.2.1 Electrodes 254

11.2.2.2 Ion-Exchange Membranes 256

11.2.2.3 PEMFC System 258

11.3 Economic Assessment of PEMFC Coupled with Electroremediation 260

11.3.1 Scenario Analysis 260

11.3.2 Hydrogen Business Model Canvas 262

11.3.3 SWOT Analysis 264

11.4 Final Remarks 265

Acknowledgments 266

References 266

12 Electrokinetic-Phytoremediation of Mixed Contaminants in Soil 271
Joana Dionísio, Nazaré Couto, Paula Guedes, Cristiana Gonçalves, and Alexandra B. Ribeiro

12.1 Soil Contamination 271

12.2 Phytoremediation 272

12.3 Electroremediation 274

12.3.1 EK Process Coupled with Phytoremediation 275

12.3.2 EK-Assisted Bioremediation in the Treatment of Inorganic Contaminants 277

12.3.3 EK-Assisted Bioremediation in the Treatment of Organic Contaminants 278

12.4 Case Study of EK and Electrokinetic-Assisted Phytoremediation 279

12.5 Conclusions 281

Acknowledgments 282

References 282

13 Enhanced Electrokinetic Techniques in Soil Remediation for Removal of Heavy Metals 287
Sadia Ilyas, Rajiv Ranjan Srivastava, Hyunjung Kim, and Humma Akram Cheema

13.1 Introduction 287

13.2 Electrokinetic Mechanism and Phenomenon 288

13.3 Limitations of the Electrokinetic Remediation Process 289

13.4 Need for Enhancement in the Electrokinetic Remediation Process 290

13.5 Enhancement Techniques 292

13.5.1 Surface Modification 292

13.6 Cation-Selective Membranes 293

13.7 Electro-Bioremediation 294

13.8 Electro-Geochemical Oxidation 295

13.9 LasagnaTM Process 296

13.10 Other Potential Processes 296

13.11 Summary 298

Acknowledgments 299

References 299

14 Assessment of Soil Fertility and Microbial Activity by Direct Impact of an Electrokinetic Process on Chromium-Contaminated Soil 303
Prasun Kumar Chakraborty, Prem Prakash, and Brijesh Kumar Mishra

14.1 Introduction 303

14.2 Experimental Section 304

14.2.1 Soil Characteristics and Preparation of Contaminated Soil 304

14.2.2 Electrokinetic Tests, Experimental Setup, and Procedure 305

14.2.3 Testing Procedure 306

14.2.4 Extraction and Analytical Methods 306

14.2.5 Soil Nutrients 306

14.2.6 Soil Microbial Biomass Carbon Analysis 307

14.2.7 Quality Control and Quality Assurance 307

14.3 Results and Discussion 308

14.3.1 Electrokinetic Remediation of Chromium-Contaminated Soil 308

14.3.1.1 Electrical Current Changes During the Electrokinetic Experiment 308

14.3.2 pH Distribution in Soil During and After the Electrokinetic Experiment 309

14.4 Removal of Cr 310

14.4.1 The Distribution of Total Cr and Its Electroosmotic Flow During the Electrokinetic Experiment 310

14.5 Effects of the Electrokinetic Process on Some Soil Properties 312

14.5.1 Soil Organic Carbon 312

14.5.2 Soil-Available Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, and Calcium 314

14.5.3 Soil Microbial Biomass Carbon 318

14.6 Conclusion 318

References 319

15 Management of Clay Properties Based on Electrokinetic Nanotechnology 323
D.S. Nesterov and V.A. Korolev

15.1 Introduction 323

15.2 Objects of the Study 326

15.3 Methods of the Study 328

15.4 Results and Discussion 330

15.4.1 Regulation of Soil rN 330

15.4.2 Regulation of Oxidation-Reduction Potential 332

15.4.3 Regulation of Soil Particle Surface-Charge Density 332

15.4.4 EDL Parameter Regulation 339

15.4.5 Regulation of Clay CEC 343

15.4.6 Regulation of Physico-Chemical Parameters of Soils 345

15.4.7 Regulation of Soil Texture and Structure 346

15.4.8 Regulation of Physical Clay Properties 352

15.4.9 Regulation of Soil Strength and Deformability 353

15.5 Conclusions 354

Acknowledgments 355

Abbreviations 355

References 357

16 Technologies to Create Electrokinetic Protective Barriers 363
D.S. Nesterov and V.A. Korolev

16.1 Introduction 363

16.2 Conventional Electrokinetic Barriers 366

16.2.1 Cationic Contaminants 366

16.2.2 Anionic Pollutants 367

16.2.3 Advanced EKB Implementations 367

16.2.4 Using EKBs for Soil Remediation 368

16.3 Electrokinetic Barrier with Ion-Selective Membranes (IS-EKB) 369

16.4 Electrokinetic Barrier Based on Geosynthetics (EKG-B) 370

16.5 Bio-Electrokinetic Protective Barrier (Bio-EKB) 371

16.6 Electrokinetic Permeable Reactive Barriers (EK-PRB) 376

16.6.1 EK-PRBs Based on Activated Carbon 377

16.6.2 EK-PRBs Based on Iron Compounds 378

16.6.2.1 ZVI-Based EK-PRBs 379

16.6.2.2 EK-PRBs Based on Ferric/Ferrous Compounds 381

16.6.3 EK-PRBs Based on Red Mud 382

16.6.4 EK-PRBs Based on Zeolites 383

16.6.5 EK-PRBs Based on Clays or Modified Soils 383

16.6.6 Other Materials for the Creation of EK-PRBs 384

16.7 Electrokinetic Permeable Reactive Barriers to Prevent Radionuclide Contamination 397

16.8 Conclusion 400

Acknowledgments 401

Abbreviations 401

References 403

17 Emerging Contaminants in Wastewater: Sensor Potential for Monitoring Electroremediation Systems 413
Cátia Magro, Eduardo P. Mateus, Maria de Fátima Raposo, and Alexandra B. Ribeiro

17.1 Scope 413

17.2 Removal Technologies: Electroremediation Treatment 416

17.3 Monitoring Tool: Electronic Tongues Devices 417

17.3.1 Sensor Design 418

17.3.1.1 Thin-Film Nanomaterials 419

17.3.1.2 Promising Thin-Film Deposition Techniques 420

17.3.1.3 Electrical Measurements: Impedance Spectroscopy 422

17.3.2 Data Treatment 424

17.4 Critical View on Coupling EK and Electronic Tongues 424

17.5 Final Remarks 427

Acknowledgments 428

References 428

18 Perspectives on Electrokinetic Remediation of Contaminants of Emerging Concern in Soil 433
Paula Guedes, Nazaré Couto, Eduardo P. Mateus, Cristina Silva Pereira, and Alexandra B. Ribeiro

18.1 Introduction 433

18.1.1 Soil Pollution 433

18.1.2 Contaminants of Emerging Concern 434

18.2 Electrokinetic Process 436

18.2.1 Removal Mechanisms 437

18.2.2 Electro-Degradation Mechanisms 439

18.2.3 Enhanced Bio-Degradation 442

18.3 Conclusion 445

Acknowledgments 446

References 446

19 Electrokinetic Remediation for the Removal of Organic Waste in Soil and Sediments 453
S.M.P.A Koliyabandara, Chamika Siriwardhana, Sakuni M. De Silva, Janitha Walpita, and Asitha T. Cooray

19.1 Introduction 453

19.2 Organic Soil Pollution 453

19.2.1 The Fate of Organic Soil Pollutants 455

19.2.2 Biomagnification and Bioaccumulation of Soil Pollutants 455

19.3 Soil Remediation Methods 456

19.3.1 Physical Methods 456

19.3.1.1 Capping 456

19.3.1.2 Thermal Desorption 457

19.3.1.3 Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE) 458

19.3.1.4 Incineration 458

19.3.1.5 Air Sparging 458

19.3.2 Chemical Methods 458

19.3.2.1 SoilWashing/Flushing 459

19.3.2.2 Chemical Oxidation Remediation 459

19.3.3 Bioremediation 460

19.3.3.1 Microbial Remediation 460

19.3.3.2 Phytoremediation 460

19.4 Electrokinetic Remediation (EKR) 461

19.4.1 Basic Principles of EKR 461

19.4.1.1 Electrolysis of PoreWater 462

19.4.1.2 Electromigration 462

19.4.1.3 Electroosmosis 464

19.4.1.4 Electrophoresis 464

19.5 EKR for the Treatment of Soils and Sediments 464

19.5.1 Enhancement Techniques Coupled with EKR 466

19.5.1.1 Techniques Used to Enhance the Solubility of Contaminants 466

19.5.1.2 Techniques to Control Soil pH 466

19.5.1.3 Coupling with Other Remediation Techniques 467

19.5.2 Facilitating Agents for PAH Removal 468

19.5.2.1 Cyclodextrin-Enhanced EKR 468

19.5.2.2 Surfactant-Enhanced EKR 468

19.5.3 Cosolvent-Enhanced EKR 469

19.5.4 Biosurfactant-Enhanced EKR 469

19.6 Factors Affecting the Efficiency of Electrokinetic Remediation 470

19.6.1 Effect of pH 470

19.6.2 Effect of Electrolytes 470

19.6.3 Effect of Soil Characteristics 470

19.6.4 Effect of the Voltage Gradient 471

19.7 Conclusions and Future Perspective 471

Acknowledgments 471

References 472

20 The Integration of Electrokinetics and In Situ Chemical Oxidation Processes for the Remediation of Organically Polluted Soils 479
Long Cang, Qiao Huang, Hongting Xu, and Mingzhu Zhou

20.1 Introduction 479

20.2 Principles Underlying EK-ISCO Remediation Technology 480

20.2.1 Desorption and Migration of Organic Pollutants 480

20.2.2 Oxidant Migration 482

20.3 Factors that Influence EK-ISCO Technology 484

20.3.1 Soil Properties 484

20.3.2 Dosage and Methods Used to Add Oxidants to Soil 485

20.3.3 Concentration and Aging of Organic Pollutants 486

20.4 Enhanced EK-ISCO Remediation Methods 486

20.4.1 Electro-Fenton Process 486

20.4.2 pH Control 487

20.4.3 Ion-Exchange Membranes 488

20.4.4 Adding Solubilizers 488

20.4.5 Electrode Activation/Electrode Thermal Activation 489

20.4.6 Nanomaterial-Enhanced Methods 490

20.5 Pilot/Field-Scale Studies of EK-ISCO Remediation Technologies 490

20.5.1 Experimental Design 490

20.5.1.1 Electrode Materials 490

20.5.1.2 Configuring Electrode Settings 491

20.5.1.3 Power Supply Modes 492

20.5.2 Pilot Cases 493

20.6 Conclusions 494

Acknowledgments 494

References 495

21 Electrokinetic and Electrochemical Removal of Chlorinated Ethenes: Application in Low- and High-Permeability Saturated Soils 503
Bente H. Hyldegaard and Lisbeth M. Ottosen

21.1 Introduction 503

21.1.1 Chlorinated Ethenes 503

21.1.2 Low-Permeability Saturated Soils 506

21.1.3 High-Permeability Saturated Soils 507

21.2 Electrokinetically Enhanced Remediation in Low-Permeability Saturated Soils 508

21.2.1 Electrokinetically Enhanced Bioremediation (EK-BIO) 508

21.2.1.1 EK-Induced Delivery of Microbial Cultures and Electron Donors 509

21.2.1.2 Current State of Development from an Applied Perspective 510

21.2.2 Electrokinetically Enhanced In Situ Chemical Oxidation (EK-ISCO) 511

21.2.2.1 EK-Induced Delivery of Oxidants 512

21.2.2.2 Current State of Development from an Applied Perspective 513

21.2.3 Electrokinetically Enhanced Permeable Reactive Barriers (EK-PRB) 514

21.2.3.1 EK-Induced Mobilization of Chlorinated Ethenes 514

21.2.3.2 EK-Controlled Reactivity of the Filling Material 515

21.2.3.3 Current State of Development from an Applied Perspective 515

21.3 Electrochemical Remediation in High-Permeability Saturated Soils 516

21.3.1 Electrochemistry in Complex Environmental Settings 517

21.3.2 Electrochemical Remediation in Complex Environmental Settings 519

21.3.2.1 Electrochemically Induced Changes in Hydrogeochemistry 522

21.3.2.2 Current State of Development from an Applied Perspective 525

21.4 Summary 527

References 528

22 Chlorophenolic Compounds and Their Transformation Products by the Heterogeneous Fenton Process: A Review 541
Cetin Kantar and Ozlem Oral

22.1 Introduction 541

22.2 Heterogeneous Fenton Processes 545

22.2.1 Effect of Catalyst Type and Possible Reaction Mechanisms 546

22.2.1.1 Iron Oxides 547

22.2.1.2 Pyrite 552

22.2.1.3 Zero-Valent Iron (ZVI) 553

22.2.1.4 Multimetallic Iron-Based Catalysts 555

22.2.1.5 Supported Iron-Based Catalyst Materials 560

22.3 Factors Affecting CP Removal Efficiency in Heterogeneous Fenton Processes 565

22.3.1 Effect of Catalyst Size 565

22.3.2 Effect of Catalyst Dosage 565

22.3.3 Effect of pH 566

22.3.4 Effect of Hydrogen Peroxide Dose 567

22.3.5 Effect of Organic Ligands 568

22.4 Reaction By-Products 569

22.5 Mode of Implementation, Reactor Configuration, and Biodegradability 571

22.6 Conclusions 572

References 574

23 Clays and Clay Polymer Composites for Electrokinetic Remediation of Soil 587
Jayasankar Janeni and Nadeesh M. Adassooriya

23.1 Introduction 587

23.2 Electrokinetic Remediation Technique: An Overview 588

23.3 Clay Soil and Minerals 588

23.4 Clay Mineral Classifications and Structure 589

23.5 Layer Charge 590

23.6 Active Bond Sites in Clay Minerals 590

23.7 Properties of Clay Minerals 591

23.8 Clay Minerals and Their Modifications 591

23.9 Organoclays and Their Properties 591

23.10 Factors Affecting the Mechanism of Transporting Contaminants in Clay Soils 593

23.10.1 Structural Parameters 593

23.10.2 Mass Transport 593

23.10.3 Electrokinetic Potential (Zeta Potential) 595

23.10.4 Polymeric Agent Enhanced Electrokinetic Decontamination of Clay Soils 596

23.10.5 Future Perspectives 597

23.11 Summary 598

References 598

24 Enhanced Remediation and Recovery of Metal-Contaminated Soil Using Electrokinetic Soil Flushing 603
Yudha Gusti Wibowo and Bimastyaji Surya Ramadan

24.1 Introduction 603

24.2 Metal Contamination in Mining Areas 604

24.3 Treatment of Metal-Contaminated Soil Using EKSF 605

24.3.1 Soil Flushing 605

24.3.2 Fundamental Equation for EK Remediation 606

24.3.3 Electrokinetic Soil Flushing (EKSF) 609

24.3.4 Flushing Fluid Enhanced EKSF Performance 610

24.3.5 Preventing pH from Acidification 617

24.3.6 Other Factors that Enhance EKSF Performance 618

24.3.7 Energy Requirements and Future Perspectives 618

24.4 Conclusion 620

References 620

25 Recent Progress on Pressure-Driven Electro-Dewatering (PED) of Contaminated Sludge 629
Bimastyaji Surya Ramadan, Amelinda Dhiya Farhah, Mochtar Hadiwidodo, and Mochamad Arief Budihardjo

25.1 Introduction 629

25.2 Electro-Dewatering for Sludge Treatment 630

25.2.1 Conventional Sludge Treatment Systems 630

25.2.2 Overview of Electro-Dewatering Systems 630

25.2.3 Fundamental Equations of EDWSystems 632

25.3 Design Considerations for PED Systems 636

25.3.1 Reducing Electrical Resistance in PED Systems 638

25.3.2 Maintaining Optimum pH and Salinity 639

25.3.3 Determining Sludge Characteristics and Properties 641

25.3.4 Operating PED Under Constant Voltage or Current 641

25.3.5 Determining Appropriate Electrodes (Anodes and Cathodes) 642

25.3.6 Reducing Energy Consumption 643

25.4 Future Perspectives 644

25.5 Conclusion 647

References 647

26 Removing Ionic and Nonionic Pollutants from Soil, Sludge, and Sediment Using Ultrasound-Assisted Electrokinetic Treatment 653
Bimastyaji Surya Ramadan, Marita Wulandari, Yudha Gusti Wibowo, Nurani Ikhlas, and Dimastyaji Yusron Nurseta

26.1 Introduction 653

26.2 Overview of Technologies 654

26.2.1 Ultrasonication 654

26.2.2 Electrokinetic Remediation 656

26.3 Desorption and Degradation Mechanism 659

26.3.1 Removing Contaminants by Ultrasonication 659

26.3.2 UltrasonicWave Effect 660

26.3.2.1 Cavitation 660

26.3.2.2 Thermal Effect 661

26.3.2.3 Chemical Effect 661

26.3.2.4 Biological Effect 662

26.3.3 Electrokinetic Remediation Process 662

26.3.3.1 Electrolysis 662

26.3.3.2 Electromigration and Electrophoresis 664

26.3.3.3 Electroosmosis 664

26.3.3.4 Electrooxidation/Reduction 665

26.4 Ultrasonication-Assisted Electrokinetic Remediation 666

26.4.1 Recent Progress in Ultrasonication-Assisted Electrokinetic Remediation (US-EK) 666

26.4.2 Factors Affecting Performance 666

26.4.2.1 System Parameters 666

26.4.2.2 Contaminant and Environmental Parameters 669

26.4.3 Future Directions 671

26.5 Conclusions 671

References 672

Index 679

Authors

Alexandra B. Ribeiro Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad University of Hyderabad, India.