+353-1-416-8900REST OF WORLD
+44-20-3973-8888REST OF WORLD
1-917-300-0470EAST COAST U.S
1-800-526-8630U.S. (TOLL FREE)

Recent Advances in Micro- and Macroalgal Processing. Food and Health Perspectives. Edition No. 1. IFST Advances in Food Science

  • Book

  • 672 Pages
  • May 2021
  • John Wiley and Sons Ltd
  • ID: 5842828
Recent Advances in Micro- and Macroalgal Processing

A comprehensive review of algae as novel and sustainable sources of algal ingredients, their extraction and processing

This comprehensive text offers an in-depth exploration of the research and issues surrounding the consumption, economics, composition, processing and health effects of algae. With contributions from an international team of experts, the book explores the application of conventional and emerging technologies for algal processing. The book includes recent developments such as drying and milling technologies along with advancements in sustainable greener techniques.

The text also highlights individual groups of compounds including polysaccharides, proteins, polyphenols, carotenoids, lipids and fibres from algae. The authors provide insightful reviews of the traditional and more recent applications of algae/algal extracts in food, feed, pharmaceutical and cosmetics products. Offering a holistic view of the various applications, the book looks at the economic feasibility, market trends and considerations, and health hazards associated with algae for industrial applications. This important book:- Provides a comprehensive overview of algal biomolecules and the role of emerging processing technologies- Explores the potential biological and health benefits of algae and their applications in food, pharmaceuticals and cosmetic products- Includes a current review of algal bioactives and processing technologies for food and ingredient manufacturers- Contains contributions from leading academic and industrial experts

Written for food scientists, allied researchers and professional food technologists, Recent Advances in Micro- and Macroalgal Processing: Food and Health Perspectives offers a guide to the novel processing and extraction techniques for exploring and harnessing the immense potential of algae.

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments v

About the IFST Advances in Food Science Book Series xvii

List of Contributors xix

Preface xxiii

Section I Composition and Extraction Technologies For Algal Bioactives

1 Algae: A Functional Food with a Rich History and Future Superfood 3
Gaurav Rajauria, and Yvonne V. Yuan

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 History of Macro- and Microalgae Consumption 4

1.3 Economic Relevance of Macro- and Microalgae 6

1.4 Book Objectives 7

1.5 Book Structure 7

References 11

2 Influence of Seasonal Variation on Chemical Composition and Nutritional Profiles of Macro- and Microalgae 14
K. Suresh Kumar, Sushma Kumari, Kamleshwar Singh, and Pratibha Kushwaha

2.1 Introduction 14

2.2 Influence of Seasonal Variation on Biochemical Composition of Micro- and Macroalgae 22

2.3 Pigments 24

2.4 Carbohydrates/Polysaccharides 31

2.5 Fiber Content 36

2.6 Proteins 38

2.6.1 Mycosporine-Like Amino Acids (MAAs) 46

2.6.2 Phycobiliproteins and Lectins 47

2.7 Lipids and PUFAs 48

2.8 Inorganic Elements and Minerals 52

2.9 Vitamins 56

2.10 Phenolic Compounds 57

2.11 Other Compounds 59

2.12 Conclusion 59

References 60

3 Advances in Drying and Milling Technologies for Algae 72
K.Y. Show, Y.G. Yan, and Duu-Jong Lee

3.1 Introduction 72

3.2 Algal Cell Drying Technologies 74

3.2.1 Solar Drying 74

3.2.2 Oven Drying 76

3.2.3 Freeze Drying 77

3.2.4 Rotary Drum Drying 77

3.2.5 Incinerator Drying 78

3.2.6 Spray Drying 78

3.2.7 Heat Circulation Drying 79

3.2.8 Microwave Drying 80

3.2.9 Polypropylene Nonwoven Membrane Drying 80

3.2.10 Refractance Window® Drying 81

3.3 Algal Cell Milling Technologies 81

3.3.1 Vortex-Bead Milling 81

3.3.2 Shake-Bead Milling 83

3.3.3 High-Pressure Homogenization 84

3.3.4 High-Speed Homogenization 86

3.3.5 Liquid Nitrogen Grinding 86

3.4 Challenges and Prospects 87

3.4.1 Processing Technology 87

3.4.2 Energy Requirement 87

3.4.3 Product Quality 88

3.4.4 Environmental Impacts 88

3.4.5 Future Directions 89

3.5 Conclusion 89

References 89

4 Recent Advances in the Use of Greener Extraction Technologies for the Recovery of Valuable Bioactive Compounds from Algae 96
Marco Garcia-Vaquero, Torres Sweeney, John O’Doherty, and Gaurav Rajauria

4.1 Introduction 96

4.2 Green Extraction Technologies and Applications 98

4.2.1 Pulsed Electric Field (PEF) 98

4.2.2 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) 101

4.2.3 Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) 106

4.2.4 Microwave Assisted Extraction (MAE) 108

4.2.5 Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE) 110

4.3 Combination Techniques 112

4.4 Challenges and Future Perspectives 115

Acknowledgments 116

References 116

5 Extraction Technologies for Functional Lipids 123
Calle Niemi and Francesco G. Gentili

5.1 Introduction 123

5.2 Conventional Extraction Techniques for Functional Lipids 124

5.3 Application of Novel Extraction Technologies for Functional Lipids 127

5.3.1 Algal Cell Disruption Methods 127

5.3.2 Novel Extraction Methods 129

5.4 Future Recommendations 134

Acknowledgments 134

References 135

6 Extraction Technologies for Proteins and Peptides 141
Ariane Tremblay and Lucie Beaulieu

6.1 Introduction 141

6.2 Conventional Extraction Techniques for Proteins and Peptides 144

6.2.1 Cell Disruption Methods 144

6.2.2 Chemical Extraction 147

6.2.3 Enzymatic Processes 148

6.2.4 Recovery/Enrichment Techniques 149

6.2.5 Protein Extraction Methods in Proteomics 150

6.3 Emerging Technologies for Proteins and Peptides 151

6.3.1 Microwave Assisted Extraction (MAE) 151

6.3.2 Pulsed Arc Technology 151

6.3.3 Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) 153

6.3.4 Sub- and Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) 153

6.3.5 High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) and Ultra-high Pressure Extraction (UHP) 154

6.4 Conclusion and Future Outlook 154

References 155

7 Extraction Technologies to Recover Dietary Polyphenols from Macro- and Microalgae 163
M. Shanmugam, Abirami Ramu Ganesan, and Gaurav Rajauria

7.1 Introduction 163

7.2 Conventional Extraction Techniques for Polyphenols 164

7.2.1 Liquid-Liquid Extraction (LLE) 165

7.2.2 Solid-Liquid Extraction (SLE) 165

7.3 Innovative Extraction Technologies for Isolation of Polyphenols from Macroalgae 166

7.3.1 Enzyme-Assisted Extraction (EAE) 166

7.3.2 Microwave Assisted Extraction (MAE) 169

7.3.3 Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) 170

7.3.4 Subcritical Water Extraction (SWE) 171

7.3.5 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) 174

7.3.6 Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE) 176

7.4 Factors Affecting Extraction 178

7.4.1 pH 179

7.4.2 Solvents 180

7.5 Challenges and Future Recommendations 180

Acknowledgments 180

References 181

8 Extraction Technologies for Bioactive Polysaccharides 188
Rashida Qari and Rajeev Ravindran

8.1 Introduction 188

8.2 Polysaccharides in Seaweed 189

8.3 Conventional Technologies for Polysaccharide Extraction 192

8.4 Advanced Technologies for Polysaccharide Extraction 200

8.4.1 Microwave Assisted Extraction (MAE) 200

8.4.2 Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE) 201

8.4.3 Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) 202

8.4.4 Enzyme Assisted Extraction (EAE) 203

8.5 Conclusion 203

References 203

Section II Biological Properties of Algal Derived Compounds

9 Potential Biological Activities Associated with Algal Derived Compounds 211
Yvonne V. Yuan

9.1 Introduction 211

9.2 Antioxidant and Anticarcinogenic Activities of Macro- and Microalgal Constituents 213

9.2.1 Mycosporine-like Amino Acids (MAAs) 214

9.2.2 Scytonemins 218

9.2.3 Pterins 220

9.2.4 Carotenes and Xanthophylls 221

9.3 Antiobesogenic Biological Activities of Macroalgal Constituents 224

9.4 Antidiabetic Biological Activities of Macroalgal Constituents 224

9.5 Prebiotic Biological Activities of Macroalgal Constituents 226

9.6 Immune System Biological Activities of Macroalgal Constituents 227

9.7 Conclusion and Future Work 227

Acknowledgments 227

References 228

10 Algal Polysaccharides and Their Biological Properties 231
Kit-Leong Cheong, Valentina Jesumani, Bilal Muhammad Khan, Yang Liu, and Hong Du

10.1 Introduction 231

10.2 Structure of Marine Algae Polysaccharides 232

10.2.1 Agar 234

10.2.2 Alginates 234

10.2.3 Carrageenan 235

10.2.4 Cellulose 235

10.2.5 Fucoidans 236

10.2.6 Laminarans 237

10.2.7 Mannans 238

10.2.8 Sulfated Rhamnans 239

10.2.9 Ulvans 239

10.2.10 Xylans 239

10.3 Isolation and Purification of Polysaccharides from Algae 240

10.3.1 Isolation 241

10.3.2 Purification 246

10.4 Health-Promoting Activities of MAP 248

10.4.1 Antioxidant Activity 249

10.4.2 Immunomodulatory Activity 253

10.4.3 Anticancer Activity 256

10.4.4 Antiviral Activity 257

10.4.5 Antihyperlipidemic Activity 260

10.4.6 Anticoagulant Activity 261

10.4.7 Antimicrobial Activity 262

10.5 Conclusion and Future Trends 263

References 264

11 Marine Algal Derived Phenolic Compounds and their Biological Activities for Medicinal and Cosmetic Applications 278
Leslie Gager, Fanny Lalegerie, Solène Connan, and Valérie Stiger-Pouvreau

11.1 Introduction 278

11.2 Types and Structures of Phenolic Compounds from Algae 280

11.2.1 Phenolic Compounds from Marine Cyanobacteria and Microalgae 281

11.2.2 Phenolic Compounds from Green and Red Macroalgae 282

11.2.3 Phenolic Compounds from Brown Macroalgae 283

11.2.4 Variability of Phenolic Content in Space and Time 284

11.3 Isolation and Purification of Phenolic Compounds from Algae 285

11.3.1 Importance of the Pretreatment of the Biomass 285

11.3.2 Extraction Procedures 286

11.3.3 Quantification and Analyses of Phenolic Compounds 289

11.4 Biological Properties of Phenolic Compounds in Health, Well-Being, and Cosmetics 290

11.4.1 Antioxidant Properties 290

11.4.2 Antiallergenic and Anti-inflammatory Properties 293

11.4.3 Antidiabetic, Antiobesity Properties and Cardiovascular Protection 296

11.4.4 Antiproliferative and Anticancer Properties 298

11.4.5 Antimicrobial and Antiparasite Properties 299

11.4.6 Antiviral Activities 301

11.4.7 Mineralogenic and Osteogenic Activities 302

11.4.8 Photoprotective Properties 303

11.4.9 Biological Properties Specific to Cosmetics or Cosmeceuticals 304

11.5 Potential Commercial Applications 306

11.5.1 Interest in Health and Nutraceutical Ingredients 306

11.5.2 Interest in Cosmetics and Cosmeceutical Ingredients 307

11.6 Conclusions and Future Trends 308

Acknowledgments 310

References 310

12 Algal Carotenoids: Recovery and their Potential in Disease Prevention 335
V. Sivamurugan, D. Radhika, Abirami Ramu Ganesan, and S. Murugesan

12.1 Introduction 335

12.2 Types and Structure of Carotenoids in Microalgae 337

12.2.1 General Occurrence 337

12.2.2 Carotenoids Isolated from Seaweeds 337

12.3 Isolation and Purification of Carotenoids from Algae 343

12.3.1 Conventional SLE 343

12.3.2 Microwave and Ultrasound Promoted Extraction 344

12.3.3 SCF Extraction 345

12.3.4 Adsorbent Assisted Carotenoid Extraction 346

12.3.5 Ionic Liquid Mediated Carotenoid Extraction 347

12.3.6 Surfactant Assisted Extraction Method 347

12.4 Biological Properties of Carotenoids and Possible Health Effects 349

12.4.1 Cancer Prevention 349

12.4.2 Antioxidant Activities 350

12.4.3 Antidiabetic Activity 351

12.4.4 Skin Diseases 352

12.4.5 Antimicrobial Activities 352

12.4.6 Wound Healing 353

12.4.7 Miscellaneous Biological Activities 353

12.5 Potential Commercial Applications 354

12.5.1 Microalgal Carotenoids in Commercial Applications 355

12.5.2 Commercial Applications of Astaxanthin and Lutein 355

12.5.3 Macroalgal Carotenoids in Commercial Applications 356

12.5.4 Nutraceutical Supplements 357

12.5.5 Commercial Application of Algal Carotenoids in Feed 357

12.6 Conclusions and Future Recommendations 358

Acknowledgments 358

References 358

13 Algal Derived Functional Lipids and their Role in Promoting Health 370
Nolwenn Terme, Benoît Chénais, Mathilde Fournière, Nathalie Bourgougnon, and Gilles Bedoux

13.1 Introduction 370

13.2 Types and Structures of Fatty Acids from Algae 371

13.3 Isolation and Purification of FAs from Algae 378

13.3.1 Isolation of FAs from Algae 378

13.3.2 Purification of FAs from Algae 378

13.4 Health Properties of FAs 384

13.4.1 Lipids, FAs from Seaweeds and Cosmetic or Cosmeceutical Uses 384

13.4.2 Preventive Effects of n-3 PUFAs on CVD and Metabolic Syndrome 387

13.4.3 Contribution of n-3 PUFAs in Cancer Risk Factor Prevention and/or Therapy 390

13.4.4 Antiviral Activities 396

13.5 Potential Commercial Applications 396

13.6 Conclusion and Future Trends 397

Acknowledgments 398

References 398

14 Algal Proteins and Peptides: Current Trends and Future Prospects 418
Abirami Ramu Ganesan, Shanmugam Munisamy, Rajeev Bhat, Palaniappan Seedevi, Kannan Mohan, and Shingo Matsukawa

14.1 Introduction 418

14.2 Isolation and Purification of Proteins from Algae 419

14.3 Structural Characteristics of Micro- and Macroalgae Peptides 421

14.3.1 Structures of Peptides from Microalgae 421

14.3.2 Structure of Protein and Peptides from Macroalgae 423

14.4 Protein and Peptide Extraction Methods from Algae 424

14.4.1 Physical Processes 424

14.4.2 Enzymatic Hydrolysis 427

14.4.3 Enzyme Assisted Extraction (EAE) 428

14.4.4 Ultrasound Assisted Extraction 428

14.4.5 Pulsed Electric Field 429

14.4.6 Microwave Assisted Extraction 429

14.4.7 Membrane Filtration 430

14.4.8 High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) 430

14.5 Biological Properties of Micro- and Macroalgal Peptides and Possible Health Effects 431

14.5.1 Antihypertensive Peptides 431

14.5.2 Anticancer Peptides and Proteins 431

14.5.3 Antioxidant Micro- and Macroalgal Peptides 432

14.5.4 Anti-Inflammatory Peptides 432

14.5.5 Algal Proteins and Peptides on Immunomodulation 433

14.5.6 Antiobesity Peptides 434

14.5.7 Antidiabetic Proteins and Peptides 434

14.5.8 Antimicrobial Algal Peptides 435

14.5.9 Biological Value of Algal Proteins in Human Nutrition 435

14.6 Potential Commercial Applications of Micro- and Macroalgal Peptides and Proteins 436

14.6.1 Microalgae Peptides and Proteins in Commercial Applications 436

14.6.2 Macroalgal Peptides and Proteins in Commercial Applications 437

14.7 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 437

Acknowledgments 438

References 438

15 Algal Dietary Fiber and its Health Benefits 446
Shakeel Ramzan, Muhammad Mushtaq, Sumia Akram, and Ahmad Adnan

15.1 Introduction 446

15.2 Dietary Fiber 447

15.2.1 Algae as a Source of Dietary Fiber 449

15.2.2 Marine Algal Polysaccharides 451

15.3 Physical Properties of Dietary Fiber (Dispersibility, Viscosity, Binding Capacity, Fermentability) 452

15.3.1 Dispersibility 452

15.3.2 Viscosity (η) 453

15.3.3 Binding Capacity 454

15.3.4 Fermentability 455

15.4 Therapeutic Effect of Algal Dietary Fibers 456

15.4.1 Antihypertensive Effects 456

15.4.2 Antiobesity Attributes 457

15.4.3 Diabetes Control 457

15.5 Potential Commercial Applications 458

15.6 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 459

References 460

Section III Application of Algae and Algal Components

16 Applications of Algae and Algae Extracts in Human Food and Feed 467
Sara Amiri Samani, Maryam Jafari, Sayed Mohammad Sahafi, and Shahin Roohinejad

16.1 Introduction 467

16.2 Nutritional Composition of Algae 468

16.3 Application of Whole Algae in Food Products 468

16.3.1 Muscle-Based Foods 468

16.3.2 Dairy Products 469

16.3.3 Cereal-Based Food Products 471

16.3.4 Beverages 473

16.4 Application of Whole Algae in Feed 473

16.5 Algal Extracts as Ingredients in Food Products 475

16.5.1 Proteins 475

16.5.2 Polysaccharides 477

16.5.3 Lipids 478

16.5.4 Pigments 479

16.5.5 Phenolic Compounds 480

16.6 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 481

References 481

17 Role of Algal Compounds for Human Health 487
Sidra Ehsan, Sumia Akram, Zohaib Saeed, Muhammad Pervaiz, and Muhammad Mushtaq

17.1 Introduction 487

17.2 Classification of Algae 488

17.2.1 Euglenophyta 488

17.2.2 Chrysophyta 489

17.2.3 Pyrrophyta 489

17.2.4 Chlorophyta (Green Algae) 489

17.2.5 Rhodophyta (Red Algae) 490

17.2.6 Phaeophyta (Brown Algae) 490

17.2.7 Xanthophyta 490

17.3 Proximate Composition of Algae 490

17.3.1 Algal Carbohydrates 490

17.3.2 Proteinaceous Biomolecules in Algae 494

17.3.3 Algal Lipids 496

17.3.4 Algal Minerals 499

17.3.5 Algal Vitamins 500

17.4 Commercial Importance of Macroalgae in Human Nutrition 500

References 502

18 Advancements in Algae in Nutraceutical and Functional Food 506
Froylán M.E. Escalante and Daniel A. Pérez-Rico

18.1 Introduction 506

18.2 Algal Derived Molecules 507

18.2.1 Carbohydrates 507

18.2.2 Lipids 511

18.2.3 Proteins 513

18.2.4 Pigments 517

18.3 Perspectives 524

References 526

19 Role of Algal Derived Compounds in Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics 537
María Lourdes Mourelle, Carmen P. Gómez, and José L. Legido

19.1 Introduction 537

19.2 Algae as a Source of Active Ingredients for Pharmaceutical Products 538

19.2.1 Sulfated Polysaccharides and Other Phycocolloids 539

19.2.2 Phlorotannins and Other Polyphenols 549

19.2.3 Sterols 552

19.2.4 PUFAs and Other Lipidic Compounds 554

19.2.5 Carotenoids and Other Pigments 556

19.2.6 Peptides and Proteins 557

19.2.7 Other Bioactive Compounds 558

19.3 Potential Pharmaceutical Formulations from Algae 559

19.3.1 Potential Anticancer, Cytotoxic, and Antiproliferative Pharmaceutical Formulations 559

19.3.2 Potential Antithrombotic, Anticoagulant, and Antihypertensive Pharmaceutical Formulations 561

19.3.3 Potential Antilipidemic and Anticholesterolemic Pharmaceutical Formulations 562

19.3.4 Potential Antiobesity and Antidiabetic Pharmaceuticals Formulations 562

19.3.5 Potential Antibacterial, Antiviral, and Antifungal Pharmaceutical Formulations 564

19.3.6 Potential Immunomodulatory Anti-Inflammatory Pharmaceutical Formulations 565

19.3.7 Potential Neuroprotective Pharmaceutical Formulations for Healthy Nervous System 565

19.3.8 Other Potential Pharmacological Formulations from Algae 566

19.4 Algae as a Source of Active Ingredients for Cosmeceuticals 567

19.4.1 Polysaccharides 568

19.4.2 Phenols and Polyphenols 575

19.4.3 Terpenes 576

19.4.4 Pigments 576

19.4.5 PUFAs and Other Lipid Compounds 577

19.4.6 Proteins and Amino Acids 577

19.4.7 Other Compounds 578

19.4.8 Algal Extracts 579

19.5 Potential Cosmeceutical Formulations from Algae 580

19.5.1 Moisturizing Cosmeceutical Formulations 581

19.5.2 Antiaging and Photoageing Cosmeceutical Formulations 581

19.5.3 Skin Whitening Cosmeceutical Formulations 582

19.5.4 Other Potential Cosmeceutical Formulations 582

19.6 Conclusion and Future Trends 583

References 584

20 Economic Status of Seaweed: Production, Consumption, Commercial Applications, Hazards, and Legislations 604
Anushree Priyadarshini, Akanksha Priyadarshini, and Gaurav Rajauria

20.1 Introduction 604

20.2 World Seaweed Utilization 605

20.2.1 World Seaweed Production 605

20.2.2 Trends in Seaweed Production and Consumption 605

20.2.3 Economic Relevance of Seaweed 610

20.3 Commercial Usage of Seaweed and Seaweed Functional Components 611

20.3.1 Food Applications of Seaweed 611

20.3.2 Nonfood Applications of Seaweed 612

20.4 Hazards Associated with Seaweed Applications 612

20.5 Legislation 613

20.6 Conclusion 614

References 614

Index 617

Authors

Gaurav Rajauria University College Dublin, Ireland. Yvonne V. Yuan Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada.